pe mi 

X673 



1919 




v^SV* \^^v* "v^*V 

? : a>*v -^hP* **** o^y^i aV^. :*H 



^x — ^ 



A NEW 
GRADED METHOD 

IN 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

LETTER WRITING AND COMPOSITION 

WITH PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF RULES 



BY 



JOHN S. COLLINS and M. D. MUGAN. 

f/ 



FIFTH EDITION 



Metropolitan Publishing Co. 
ST. LOUIS, MO. 






\°\ 



V 



TO THE INSTRUCTOR 



Every mistake in language is a violation of a Rule of 
Grammar. 

Train the students in the detection and correction of 
errors by the application of the Rules. 

There are only 14 practical Rules in English Grammar. 
The necessary theoretical preparation, combined 
with an exhaustive training in the practical appli- 
cation of the Rules, should be commenced in the 
fifth and finished in the sixth grades since the 
great majority of pupils quit school early in the 
seventh grade. 

JOHN S. COLLINS 

Assistant Superintendent of Instruction, 

St. Louis Public Schools 



Copyright, 1919, 
by 

Metropolitan Publishing Co. 

©CLA5H487 

FEB -5 l 0, 9 . 



CONTENTS. 



GRADED METHOD. 



PAGE. 

Analysis of Words 124 

Abbreviations 103, 138 

Adjectives 10, 35, 87 

Adverbs 24, 37, 107 

Agreement of Verbs 32, 91 

Appositives 26, 50, 5" 

Conjunc tions 12, 45, in 

Conjunctive Adverbs 47 

Complex Sentences. 22, 45, 47 

Composition 79, 155 

Copulative Verbs 19, 43 

Compound Sentences. 12 

Comparison of Adverbs 36 

Difficult Constructions 118 

Exclamatory Sentences. 115 

Each, Every, This 33 

Irregular Verbs 94, 98 



PAGE. 

Infinitives 52, 59 

Interjections 114 

Interrogative Sentences 14 

Language Lessons 149 

Letter Writing 139 

Nouns 9, 26, 72, 77 

Nominative Absolute 51, 64, 66, 68 

Possessive Formed 117 

Pronunciation 160 

Prefixes, Suffixes 125 

Prepositions 28, 40, 108 

Participles 21, 62, 6° 

Pronouns 13, 22, 82, 84 

Rules of Syntax 118 

Shall, Will, Sit, Set, Lie ic 4 , 15? 

Strengthened Copula 59 

Subjunctive Clauses. 70 



CRITICAL DIGEST. 



Adjectives 210 

Adverbs 243 

Conjunctions, 249 

Etymology 187 

Interjections 251 

Nouns .189 

Orthography. 176 

Participles 219 



Prepositions 246 

Pronouns 200 

Punctuation 252 

Prosody 257 

Rules for Capitals 178 

Rules for Italics 182 

Rules for Spelling 184 

Syntax 207, 21*, 234, 240 



Partt of ?pe*ch .187 Verbs, 



.2x8 



That Grammar which does not teach language by the 
application of Rules, within the limit of one year 
and, at the same time, make the work de- 
lightfully interesting to the pupils is 
practically worthless.— Webster. 



For the practical application of the Rules see pages 17, 23, 26, 
29, 33, 34, 38, 41, 41, 51, 59, 63, 69. 71, 76, 86, 93, 
etc. 



PREFACE to Fifth Edition. 

1. The authors of this work built it up on the fundamental principle that 

grammar is designed, primarily, as a means and method of teach- 
ing language, 

2. The authors of this work claim that grammar should aim directly at 

teaching language— not definitions, explanations, observations and 
modifications, which the child can neither understand nor 
appreciate. 

3. The authors of this work prepared every part of it in the school rooms, 

and every line of it was used for many years, by many teachers 
under their supervision before the first line was printed. 

4. The authors of this work arpreciate the fact that the great majority of 

school children are compelled to quit school before reaching the 
seventh grade, and for this reason have brought this work within 
the capacity of children in the fifth and sixth grade. 

5. The authors of this work appreciate the fact that every mistake in lan- 

guage is a violation of a rule of grammar, consequently their 
method Is designed to train the children in the detection and cor- 
rection of mistakes by the application of the rules of grammar. 

6. The authors of this work claim that it is contrary to sound educational 

principles to require school children to spend two or three years 
on the theory of grammar before developing the practical side of 
the work by the application of the rules. 

7. The so called Language Lessons with which the country has been flooded 

for many years under various names should be classed as 
'delusions' since they produce no lasting results commensurate 
with the time wasted on them. 



TO THE INSTRUCTOR. 



As preparation for the recitation, assign six sentences to be 
analyzed by diagram on slates or paper. As the first step at 
the recitation, have the prepared work transferred from slates 
to blackboard by the pupils for convenient use. During the 
recitation, train the pupils into fluency and rapidity in the 
oral analysis. With the analysis of the sentence in the form 
of a diagram on the board before the class, ask every possible 
question about every word in it. Be prompt and generous in 
assisting the pupils to answer questions during the first few 
weeks. 



The practical applica- 
tion of the laws of 
language will be found 
on pages IT, 21, 23, 23, 
27, 20, 32, 33, 34, 36, 
and numerous others. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX 

COMBINED. 



A Sentence is a complete thought expressed in 
words. It is an assemblage of words making com- 
plete sense. 

The Subject of a sentence is the actor. It is 
that of which something is affirmed (said). It is 
generally a name — a noun. 

The Predicate of a sentence is that which is af- 
firmed of the subject. It is generally an action- 
word — a verb. 

1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

Analyze the following sentences, using this as a model: 

( Birds sing. ) 



"Birds sing" is a sentence. Birds is the subject; it is that of which 
•omething is affirmed; sing is the predicate; it is that which is affirmed of 
the subject. 

1. Trees grow. 2. Snow melts. 3. Men work. 4. Fire burns. 
5. Wind blows. 0. Lions roar. 7. Flowers bloom. 8. Walter 
writes. 0. Horses run. 10. Jennie sews. 11. Pupils study. 
12. Boys play. 13. Fishes swim. 14. Dogs bark. 15. Bees sting. 

Capitals. — The first word of every sentence should begin with a 
capital. 

7 



8 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



2. OBJECTS WITH TRANSITIVE VERBS. 

CI. Transitive, requiring an object. 

Verbs are <[ 2. Intransitive, requiring no object. 

(^3. . See page 19. 

A Verb is a word which expresses being, action, 
or state; as, I am; Henry walks. 

A Transitive Verb requires an object to com- 
plete its meaning. 

An Intransitive Verb does not require an object 
to complete its meaning. 

Remark.— All the verbs in the preceding exercise are intransitive verbs; 
those in the following exercise are all transitive verbs. 

Analyze the following sentences repeatedly, using this as a models 

"Columbus discovered America.'" 



( 


Columbus 


discovered 


America. 




( 


Subject 


Predicate 


Object 




( 


Name 


Action-word 


Name 




( 


Noun 


Verb 


Noun 



:) 



"Colnmbus discovered America" is a sentence. Columbus is the sub- 
ject ;discovered is the predicate; America is the object of the transitive 
verb discovered. 

1. Merchants sell goods. 2. George studied history. 3. Birds 
build nests. 4. Farmers sow grain. 5. Cats catch mice. 6. Black- 
Bmiths shoe horses. 7. Fire burns coal. 8. Children like stories. 
9. Men build houses. 10. James cuts wood. 11. Brother studies 
law. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 9 

Parts of Speech. — Words are arranged in classes 
according to their use in sentences, and these classes 
are called the parts of speech. 

The parts of speech ar»e: Noun, Pronoun, Adjec-* 
tive, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Inter- 
jection. 

A Noun is a name; as, bird, Mary, light, dark- 
ness. 

A Proper Noun is the name of some particular 
person, place or thing. All other nouns are called 
Common Nouns. 

f Proper; Boston, England, George, Saturday. 
Nouns are 1 

(Common; city, country, boy, day. 

Capitals* — All proper nouns should begin with capitals. 

Suggestion.— From a careful examination :>f the diagrams on the opposite 
page we learn that the subject of a sentence is a name, and the name is a 
noun; the predicate is an action- word, and that is a verb; the object is 
a name— a noun. 

A Common Noun is a name which belongs to all 
the things in a class of objects, and is applied to each 
individual of the class, when it is spoken of. 

To the Teacher. — It is important that strict attention be paid to the method 
of 'teaching suggested in the Appendix, The tcork should be taken, invariably t in 
the order in ivhich it is here arranged. 

Copulative Verbs. — Am, was, is, «r<\ were, b\ 

are different forms of one copulative verb. The 
noun or pronoun following any one of these forms is 
in the nominative — not the objective case. It should 
have the nominative — not the objective form. 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Adjectives answer 
the questions: 



3. ADJECTIVES. 

f Which? What? 

How many? 
^ What kind? 

An Adjective is a word that describes or points 
out a noun; as, good boy, this book, Jive oranges, 
the seventh day. 

A Descriptive Adjective is one that describes 
or qualifies the meaning of the noun with which it 
is used. 

Examples.- Large, small, hard, soft, old, young, beautiful, strong, nice, 
wealthy, good, happy. 

A Definitive Adjective limits or defines the 
application of a noun, without expressing any of its 
qualities. 

Examples. — This, that, these, those, an, the, fifths last, both, former, same, 
yonder, every, any, all, seven, few, much, certain, fourfold. 

Analyze the following sentences repeatedly, using this as a model: 
4 'That wealthy merchant built a fine house." 



( merchant built house. ) 



[Thatj [wealthy J ~TjED pSeJ 

"That wealthy merchant built a fine house" Is a sentence. Merchant Is 
the subject; built is the predicate; house is the object. The subject, 
merchant, is modified by that, a definitive adjective, and wealthy, a de- 
scriptive adjective. House is modified by a, a definitive adjective, and by 
fine, a descriptive adjective. 

1. This beautiful picture pleases the artist. 2. An old fox caught 
the young duck. 3. Brave men protected the ancient city. 4. 
One, small, dark cloud hides the new moon. 5. Blooming roses 
decorate his antique portico. 6. Brilliant rays of solar light pierce 
the heavy, broken clouds. 



STEPPING STONES 

3IETHOD OF INVESTIGATION. 

The reasoning process which we use while studying, 
drawing conclusions and writing the analysis of a 
sentence in the form of a diagram, either on the 
board during the recitation or on slates while prepar- 
ing the lessons, is identical with that which we use in 
solving mathematical problems and requires quite as 
much care and attention. 

The formulated method of asking questions which 
we here present, when used with care, will aid very 
much in the work. The questions are designed to 
show clearly the use and force of each and every 
word in the sentence. 

How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood, 
When fond recollection presents them to view! 

The orchard, the meadow, the deep tangled wild wood, 
And every loved spot that my infancy knew! 



Scenes 
[ the J 



are dear 



[ how 



of 



childhood 



I 



my 



J 



J 



to 



heart ) 

I m 7 J 



"How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood" is a 

tence, exclamatory, simple. Name the three words that 

make the complete statement. Scenes are dear. About what 

unething said, what is the subjecl I Scenes. What scenes? 

Of childhood. What childhood? My childhood, .What is 

said about what is the predicate! Are dear Are 

r in what, way? Are dear to heart. What heart? My 

heart. 

Can jrou now anar s in this First Part rapidly and correctly? 

procure the Second Part. • 



12 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



4. CONJUNCTIONS. 

The Conjunction is that part of speech which is 

used for the purpose of joining together words and 
sentences. 

Explanation. — A sentence may have two or more subjects 
connected by a conjunction, or two or more objects connected by 
the same part of speech; as, Edward and Henry study history. 
Alice studies geography and history. (See page 21.) 

Remark. — The conjunction, and, is the only one here introduced, and its 
use is limited to such construction as the ones presented in the paragraph 
above. 



( Arthur 



shot 



fox 



and 



duck 



Ian] [old J [a J [wild) 



> 



"Arthur shot an old fox and a wild duck" is a sentence; declarative; 
simple. Arthur is the subject; shot is the predicate; fox and duck are 
the objects. Fox is modified by an, a definitive adjective, and by old, a 
descriptive adjective. Dnck is modified by a, a definitive adjective, and by 
wild, a descriptive adjective. 

1. Owls destroy rats and mice. 2. Industry and energy 
produce prosperity. 3. We have a wise judge and an able 
governor. 4. A carpenter and a farmer built that new house 
and this new fence. 5. Melvin and his brother caught a 
small, wild marmoset. 6. Temperance and frugality promote 
health and happiness. 

"Brilliant rays of solar light pierce the heavy, broken 
clouds." 



( Rays R. 1. 


pierce 


" \ 

clouds R. 6. 


No. 


of 


brilliant 






[the J heavy [ broken J 


6 








light R. 7. 


) 





( Solar ) 



Rays is the subject, pierce is the predicate, clouds is the object. Rays is 
modified, by brilliant, an adjective and by the phrase, of light. Light is 
modified by the, heavy and broken, three adjectives. 

Direction. — Examine carefully the Method of Investigation 
on page 30 in the Brief Introductory Course at the end cf 
this book. 



PRONOUNS. 23 

6. PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun is a word that stands for a Noun. 

The Personal Pronouns are 1, you, he, she 
and it, in their declined forms. 

Remarks.— The Pronouns, as arranged in the following table, should 
be written on the blackboard and allowed to remain there while the class is 
on this and the following topics. The forms may be learned by repeatedly 
referring to thorn. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 





PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 


INTERROG. 


Nominative Forms 


I 


He 


She 


It 


You 


Who? 


Possessive Forms 


- My 


His 


Her 


Its 


Your 


Whose? 


Objective Forms 


Me 


Him 


Her 


It 


You 


Whom? 


PLURAL NUMBER. 


Nominative Forms 


We 


They 


You 


Who? 


Possessive Forms 


Our 


Their 


Your 


Whose? 


Objective Forms 


Us 


Them 


You 


Whom? 



Capitals. — The pronoun I and the icord should be written in 
capitals. 

To the Teacher.— The spoiling, the pronunciation, the meaning, 

and application of alt new and dijjicult words and technical terms shouhl b > 
taught in special lessons devoted exclusi rely to that work. Every an&icer should 
be a complete sentence, every word of which should be pronounced clearly and 
forcibly. 

Remark.— The class should be carried rapidly from one exercise to 
another. Every sentence should be diagramed and analyzed repeatedly. 
The definitions may be learned incidentally by referring to them while using 
the technical terms In the analysis. The hands of four-fifths of the pupils 
should be raised In response to every question, otherwise there is a want of 
attention. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Analyze the following sentences repeatedly, using this as a modeli 
"They destroyed that beautiful forest." 



( They destroyed forest. J 



Ithat J [ beautiful J 

"They destroyed that beautiful forest" is a sentence; declarative; sim 
pie. They is the subject; destroyed the predicate; forest the object. 
Forest is modified by that, a definitive adjective, and by beautiful, a 
descriptive adjective. 

1. I saw the old mill. 2. George Randall owns it. 3. He will 
sell it. 4. I shall see him. 5. Father wants the mill. 6. We shall 
have it. 7. Mary studies geography. 8. She wrote a nice letter, 
9. We read it. 10. The girls saw us. 11. We saw them. 12. The 
little boy watched us. 

Remark. — The pupils should be capable of analyzing every sentence^ thug 
far introduced, correctly and with rapidity, before advancing beyond this 
topic. (See the Appendix.) 

The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which, 
and what, when used in asking questions; as, " Who 
is that?" "Which is yours?" " What did you say?" 

A Declarative sentence is one used to affirm or 
deny something. 

An Interrogative sentence is one used to ask a 
question. 

1. Who broke that new slate? 2. Which did you want? 3. What 
did you say? 4. Who has a sharp knife? 5. You saw whom? 
6. Who will take your place? 7. Whose ball have you? 8. What 
does he want? 9. Who took the prize? 10. Whom did they call? 

Punctuation. — An interrogation point (?) should be placed at the 
end of every interrogative sentence. 



CASKS OF NOUNS. 15 

Diagram and analyze the following sentences repeatedly, using 
this as a model. WriU the number of the rule in the diagram by 
the woi'd to which it applies. 

"Your little sister tore my brother's book." 



c 



sister 



tore 



book 6 



L Your 3 J I little 12T I brother's 3 J 

1 my 3 J 

Your little sister tore my brother's book" is a sentence; declarative; 
simple. Sister is the subject; tore is the predicate; book the object. The 
subject, sister, is modified by your, a possessive, and by little, a descrip- 
tive adjective. The object, book, is modified by brother's, a possessive, 

and brother's is modified by my, a possessive. 

» 
Sister is a noun, the subject of the sentence, therefore nominative case 
Rale 1. 

Book is a noun, the object of the transitive verb tore, thereforo it is in 
the objective case, Rule 6. 

Rule 6. A noun or pronoun, used as the object 
of a transitive verb, is in the objective case (and 
should have the objective form). 

Your is a pronoun; it denotes possession, therefore it is in the posses- 
Five case, Rule 3. 

Rule 3. A noun or pronoun denoting possession, 
or ownership, is in the possessive case (and should 
have the possessive form). 

Brother's is a noun ; it denotes possession, or ownership, therefore it 
is in the possessive case, Rule 3. 

1. His dog caught our cat. 2. He broke my arrow. 3. James 
took your pencil. 4. I have his knife. 5. Jennie has Albert's hat. 
0. She tore her apron. 7. Walter cut her rope. 8. She snatched 
his bright, new knife. 0. That big boy struck Henry's little brother. 

Suggestion.— The cases of the nouns and pronouns should be explained 
immediately after the close of the oral analysis of each sentence^ except when 
the teacher decides to have such explanation omitted. 

Punctuation.— The apostrophe is used to show the possessive case, 
and to denote the omission of a letter or Ip.ttevs* 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



DECLENSION OF THE SIMPLE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



FIRST PERSON. 



Singular. 

Nom. I, 

Pass. My or mine, 

Obj. Me. 



Plural. 
Nom. We, 
Poss. Our, 

Obj. Us. 



SECOND PERSON. 



Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Thou, Ye, 

Poss. Thy or thine, Your, 

Obj. Thee. You. 



Singular. Plural, 

Nom. You, You, 

Poss. Your, Your, 

Obj. You. You. 



THIRD PERSON. 



Singular. 

MAS. FEM. NEUT. 

Nom. He, She, It, 
Poss. His, Her, Its, 
Obj. llim. Her. It. 



Plural. 

NEUT. OR COM. 

Nom. They, 
Poss. Their, 
Obj. Them. 



DECLENSION OF RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE 
PRONOUNS. 

Singular and Plural. Singular and Plural. 
Nom. Who, Which, 

Poss. Whose, Whose, 

Obj. Whom. Which. 

The Singular Number denotes but one ; as, bird, 

fox. 

The Plural Number denotes more than one; as, 

bi?*ds, foxes. 

Remark.— Pronouns agree In number with the nouns they represent— 
their antecedents. 



APPLICATION OF RULES. 17 

Analyze the following sentences repeatedly, making corrections 
when necessary. The following may be used as a model for cor- 
recting: 

"Who did you see?" 



c 



you R. 1. did see 



Who R. 6. whom? 



Who is a pronoun, the object of the transitive verb did see, therefore 
In the objective case, according to Rule G, and should have the objective 
form, ichom. 

1. Walter will go. 2. Him and I will see you. 3. Who did you 
want? 4. He took the carriage. 5. Me and Henry saw him. 
6. Who shall I trust? 7. Who can you save? 8. 27er and fa'wi saw you. 
9. Who swept the room? 10. Us. 11. Who rode the horse? 
12. Him and I. 13. Who did you call? 14. He saw you and I. 
15. Who did they meet? 16. George and She. 



Rules. 



' Rule 1. — Nominative Case — Nominative form. 

Rule 3. — Possessive Case — Possessive form. 
L Rule 6. — Objective Case — Objective form. 



Suggestion.— All abbreviated sentences, like the tenth, twelfth and six- 
teenth, in the exercise above, should be completed before being analyzed or 
corrected. When the point is reached in the recitation where correction is 
made, aline should be drawn through the incorrect word and the correct one 
written in the diagram near it. 

Rule 1. — The subject of a sentence is in the nomi- 
native case and should have the nominative form. 

Remark. — Instead of the form for correcting: sentences presented above a 
shorter form like the following maybe used: Who is a violation of Rule 
^ix; it should have the objective form, whom. 

Rule 6. — The object of a transitive verb is in the 
objective case and should have the objective form. 



18 PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. 

6. COPULATIVE VERB. 

A Verb is a word which expresses being, action, 
or state; as, I am; William walks; The tree stands. 

The Copulative Verb, to be, is used to join a 
predicate to a subject. 

C Transitive, followed by an object, R. 6. 
Verbs < Intransitive, " ,( no object. 

(^ Copulative, Be, am, was, is, are, were, R. 2. 

The Predicate of a sentence may be a transitive 
or intransitive verb, or it may be a noun, pronoun 
or adjective following a copulative verb. 

Remark, — The verb, to be, in its different forms, am, was, is, are, were, 
have been, has been, etc., is the only copulative verb used under this 
topic. 

Analyze the following sentences repeatedly, using this as a model: 

" Virgil was a famous poet." 



( Virgil R. 1. was t poet R. 2. J 



[ a J I famous J 

11 Virgil was a famous poet" is a sentence; declarative; simple. Virgil is 
the subject; was is the copula; poet is the predicate. Poet is modified by 
a and famous, two adjectives. 

Poet is a noun used in a sentence after a copulative verb and meaning 
the same person as the subject, Vigil, it is therefore in the nominative case, 
according to Rule two. 

Rule 2. — Every one of the different forms of the 
verb, to be, takes the same case after it as before. 

Remark. — Pupils should be well trained in reading sentences omitting 
all modifiers, that is, in reading the three words which make a complete 
Btatement — subject , predicate, object, or subject, copula, predicate; as, Franklin 
was philosopher. Candle is wax. We shall be scholars. Criminal should 
have been executed. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1^ 

1. Franklin too* a philosopher. 2. Napoleon was a great com- 
mander. 3. That beautiful white candle is wax. 4. This white 
powder is quinine. 5. The officers were old men. 6. This blade 
is steel. 7. They have been soldiers. 8. We are studious pupils. 
9. We shall be good scholars. 

7. AUXILIARIES. 

Auxiliary Verbs arc those which are used in the 
formation of other verbs. 

They are: do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, must. With the 
principal verbs, they form such groups as, may be, shall have gone, 
must have seen, etc., each of which should be treated as a single 
word. 

"Such a leader should be stern and brave." 



( leader R. 1. should be t stern and brave. R. 23. ) 



Tsueh a J 

"Such a leader should be stern and brave" is a sentence; declarative,' 
simple. Leader is the subject; should be is the copula; stern and brave 
are the predicates. Leader is modified by such a, an adjective. And is 
a conjunction. 

Stern is an adjective, used as the predicate of a sentence, and it modifies 
the subject, leader, Rule 23. 

Rule 23. An adjective or participle, used as the 
predicate of a sentence, modifies the subject. 

1. My book is old. 2. It was new. 3. It has been useful. 4. 
Your writing and drawing are beautiful. 5. My writing is poor. 
G. That man is honest. 7. He has been wealthy. 8. His residence 
is large and beautiful. 0. Gen. Washington ivas amiable. 10. 
Gen. Jackson was stern. 

{Predicate, followed by an object, R. 0. 
Predicate, " u no object. 
Copulative, " ll ( Predicatcorpredicate,R2. 

1 Predicate, R. 23. 

The Predicate of « sentence may consist Of any one of what five differ- 
ent things? 



20 VERBAL NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES, 

8. PARTICIPLES. 

The Participle is a form of the verb that may 
be used as a noun or an adjective. It generally ends 
in ing, ed, or en; as, falling, destroyed, written. 

Analyze the following sentences, using this as a model: 
u The windows were broken." 



( windows were -r broken. ) 



LTheJ 
First method: 

Windows is the subject; were is the copula; broken is the predicate. 

Second method: 

Windows is the subject; were broken is the predicate. 

1. The castle hadbeen stormed. 2. That strong fortress was de- 
stroyed. 3. The city was captured. 4. The proud, haughty peo- 
ple were humbled. 5. We ivere alarmed. 6. They were terrified. 
7. The scanty stores had been taken. 8. The soldiers were wounded. 

[ Transitive, The boy wrote a letter. 

Verbs < Intransitive, The boy walks. 

(^ Copulative, Be, am, was, is, are, were, R. 2. 

COPULATIVE VERBS. 

T A m j was y is j are j were j have been t 

Many of the errors we observe in general conversa- 
tion arise from inability to distinguish the copulative 
from the transitive verbs. Copulative verbs are fol- 
lowed by nominative forms of nouns and pronouns, 
while transitive verbs are followed by the objective 
forms. If the noun or pronoun after the verb means 
the same person or thing as noun or pronoun before 
the verb, it is a copulative verb. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 21 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

Conjunctions join together words and sentences. 

A Simple Sentence is a single thought expressed 
in words. 

A Compound Sentence is composed of two sim- 
ple sentences joined together by a conjunction. 

Remark.-^«rf and but are the only conjunctions to be U9ed In this 
grade, and no compound sentence is to contain more than two simple sen- 
tences. 

Analyze the following sentences repeatedly and correct all 
mistakes by the application of the rules: 
"You and him may go but George must remain." 



You 


and Mm- be 


II. 1. may go 


• 


("but" - ) 




( 


George K. 


1. must remain. ) 



) 



Him is a violation of Rule one; it should have the nominative form, he. 

Rule 1.— The subject of a sentence is in the nomina- 
tive case and should have the nominative form. 

"You and he may go, but George must remain," is a sentence, compound. 
You and he are the subjects of the first simple sentence; may go is the 
predicate. 

George is the subject of the second simple sentence; must remain is the 
predicate. And is a conjunction connecting two words; but is a conjunction 
connecting two sentences. 

1. Matilda and I prepared the dinner, Lawrence and he cut 
the wood. 2. My brother caught a wild duck but Henry and 
me caught nothing. 3. Doctor Lee practices surgery and his 
uncle practices medicine. 4. Walter and Julian discovered him 
and I 5. Albert and me will remain, but her and Julia may 
go. 

Suggestion. — If your class is now commencing the study of this subject, it 
will be Wf.ll to begin with the work in the Brief Introductory Course, Stepping 
Stones. Observe the 'Method of Investigation' on page 30 at the end of this 
book. 



22 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



9. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun and a con- 
junction united in one word. It stands for a noun 
or pronoun, called its antecedent, and it acts the 
part of a conjunction, by uniting together two 
sentences. The second sentence modifies a word 
in the first, thus forming a complex sentence. 

A Complex Sentence is one composed of a prin- 
cipal clause and one or more dependent or modify- 
ing clauses. 

The Relative Pronouns are who, which, what, that, and as. 

Suggestion.— In the diagram draw a line connecting the relative pro- 
noun with its antecedent. 

Analyze the following sentences repeatedly, using this as a model: 

"That old gentleman who carries the cane is our new post- 
master." 



Gentleman 



is 



postmaster 2 



to™ J UewJ 



j that 



who 



carries 



oane 6 



D 



ItheT 

•'That old gentleman who carries the cane is our new postmaster" Is a 
sentence; declarative; complex. 

Gentleman is the subject of the principal sentence; is is the copula; 
postmaster is the predicate. The subject, gentleman, is modified by that 
and old, two adjectives ; and by the clause, who carries the cane, of which 
who is the subject, carries, the predicate, and cane, the object. Cane is 
modified by the, an adjective. The predicate, postmaster, is modified by 
our, a possessive, and by new, an adjective. (Synthesis, page 41.) 

1. Mr. Mason, who is an attorney, wrote the deed. 2. It was 
Henry Carter that took your letter. 3. We will honor them who 
honor us. 4. The g-eneral respects the man who obeys his com- 
mand. 5. The youth who was speaking was applauded. 6. We 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 2o 

Copulative Verb, to be — its different forms — followed 
by nominative, Rule two — Am, was, is, are, were, 
have been, etc 

Explanation.— The relative clause is a modifier of the noun for 

which the relative stands. 

Analyze and correct the following sentences: 
"It is her that has your book." 

( It is T -fee?- R. 2. she ) 



that has 



book 



( your ) 

Her is a pronoun used in a sentence after the copulative verb, Is, and 
meaning the same person as the subject, it, it is therefore iu the nominative 
case, Rule two, and should have the nominative form, she, 

1 It was him that called you. 2. Him and I saw your little 

brother. 3. It is her that plays the organ. 4. Your friend, who 
we met, knows the doctor. 5. Some think it was her and some 
think it was me that won the prize. G. It was not him but me 
that met you. 7. It could not have been her that wrote that let- 
ter. S. If I had been him I would have done the same thing. 9. 
Whom do they say that I am? 10. I am him for whom you 
search. 11. It is them, not we, who are to blame. 

Suggestion. —Some of the above sentences, being out of grade, may be 
omitted for the present. 

Rule 2. — Every one of the different forms of the 
verb, to be, takes the same case after it as before. 

Her is a violation of Paile 2; it should have the nominative 
form, she. 



t Transitive, always followed by the Objective, R. 6. 
Verbs Intransitive, 

V Copulative, To be, am, was, is, are, were, Nominative, R. 2. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The different forms of the verb to be, such as am, was, is, are, 
were and others, should be followed by the nominative forms of 
nouns and pronouns — not the objective forms. 

To the Teacher.— Everything should be learned by experience and observa- 
tion ichile doing the ivork— analyzing the sentences— not by memorizing definitions 
and explanations. 

Nouns used as adjectives: George has a paper box. Skilful 
workmen make glass ornaments. Walker has a gold watch. A 
tall iron fence surrounds the park. 

Adjectives used as nouns? The good are happy. The innocent 
are blessed. The faithful will be rewarded. The charitable 
relieve the poor. The honest are the just. 

10. ADVERBS. 

An Adverb is a word that is used to modify the 
meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

Adverbs of inanner answer the question: How? 
They generally, though not always, end in ly. The 
adjectives from which they are formed do not end in ly. 

Analyze the following sentences, using this as a model: 
"The wind blows violently." 



( wind R. 1. blows ) 



[ The J [ violently ! 

••The wind blows violently" is a sentence; declarative; simple. Wind is 
the subject; blows the predicate. Wind is modified by the, an adjective-, 
blows is modified by violently, an adverb of manner. (See Appendix.) 

1. The river rose rapidly. 2. The sluggard sleeps soundly. 
3. He acted foolishly. 4. They acted wisely. 5. The moments fly 
rapidly. 6. He f ell suddenly. 7. We live happily. 8. Harry came 
quickly. 9. Our pupils write nicely. 10. The boy broke the stick 



ADVERBS 25 

easily. 11. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 12. You 
should analyze these sentences correctly and rapidly. 

Remark. — In the exercises above, name the adjective from which the ad- 
verbs are formed. 

Analyze the following sentences repeatedly and correct 
all mistakes by the application of the rules: 

"That steamboat moves slow." 



( steamboat moves ) 



[That J [ slowly J 

Slow modifies the verb, moves; it is therefore an adverb, and should have 
the adverbial form, slowly. Rule 18. 

Rule 18.— Adverbs of manner should have the ad- 
verbial form which generally ends in ly. 

1. That girl reads fluently. 2. Those beautiful birds sing 
sweet. 3. The doctors handled the wounded officers gentle. 
4. The old gentleman treated us kind. 5. The rising sun shines 
brilliant. 6. The owl flies noiselessly. 7. How swift that racer 
runs! 8. That boy runs rapidly. 9. I thought it was them. 
10. He knew it was us. 11. I am sure that it was them. 

"Whom do they say that I am?" 



( They do say f I am T who R. 2.) 



No. 9 



Whom is a violation of Rule two; it should have the nominative form who. 

They is the subject, do say is the predicate, and the clause, I am who, 
is the object of the transitive verb, do say. 

Remark. — A few extra lessons may, with advantage, bo given in draw- 
ing diagrams without rulers and omitting the words. Neatness and rapid- 
ity are desirable if not necessary. 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 

11. APPOSITIVES. 

An Appositive is a noun or pronoun used to ex- 
plain or identify a preceding noun or pronoun; as, 
Sherman, the general, not Sherman, the statesman, 
was appointed. 

An Appositive means the same person or thing as 
the noun or pronoun which it modifies and it is put by 
apposition in the same case. 

"Magellan, the navigator, sailed around the globe." 

c 



Magellan R. 1. 


1 


sailed j 




) 


around 




( navigator R. 4. 




( «* ) 


globe R. 7. 



Navigator is a noun used to identity Magellan, it is, therefore, put by 
apposition in the same case — the nominative, according to Rule 4. 

"Have you seen Florence, she who found your book?" 

( You | have seen | Florence R. 6. ) 

( she her R. 4. ) 



( who | found book J 

She is a pronoun used to identify Florence, it is, therefore, put by 
apposition in the same case — the objective according to Rule 4, and should 
have the objective form, her. 

Remark. — The practical work under this topic may be omitted until the 
*lass has completed the work as far as page forty-two. 

1. Milton, the poet, was blind. 2. My brother, John, knew Gar- 
land, W\e attorney . 3. That boy, James, took my new knife. 4. The 
steamer Baltic, crossed the ocean. 5. I saw Matilda, your sister. 
6. Victor Hugo, the famous French author, is dead. 7. You know 
George Herder, the physician. 8. W. B. Smith, that enterprising 



APPOSITIVES. 27 

merchant, is exceedingly wealthy. 9. Your brother, Arthur, took 
your paper. 10. Bolivar, the famous zoarrior and patriot, van- 
quished the Spanish forces. 

Rule 4. — A noun or pronoun used to explain or 
identify a preceding noun or pronoun is put by appo- 
sition in the same case. 

Direction.— Correct the following sentences first by the application of the 
rule and afterwards by the elimination of such words as may be considered 
superfluous. 

2. I met your brother, he who owns the mill. 2. It was G-eorge, 
him that we met. 3. Did you see Mrs. Taylor, she who keeps the 
store? 4. I know your sisters, they that go to school. 5. It was 
Nettie, her whose name they called. 6. Have you seen Victoria, 
she who found your book? 7. I know the manager, he who made 
the contract. 

Punctuation. — The appositive with its modifiers should be sep- 
arated from the rest of the sentence by commas. 

An Imperative Sentence is one used to express 
a command, an entreaty, an exhortation or permission ; 
as, "Children, obey your parents" "Study your 
lesson. "Come here quickly." 

To the Teacher.— Are you doing the work iri the order in which it is given 
without omitting any part ofitt If not you will fail to produce the best results. 

Questions. — What is a relative pronoun? A complex sentence? 
The relative sentence — clause — generally modifies a word; what 
is that word called? What is the difference between a compound 
and complex sentence? Give an example of an adjective 
a noun. A noun used as an adjective. Are adverbs ever formed 
from adjectives? Adverbs of manner generally end in v. 
lable? When is an appositive in the nominative case? Under 
what conditions is it in the objective case? What about the 
punctuation of the appositive? 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

12. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE. 

A Preposition is a word used with a noun or 
pronoun to form a phrase that is used as a modifier. 

A Phrase is two or more words that cannot be 
separated without destroying the meaning. 

A Prepositional Phrase is composed of a prep- 
osition and a noun or a pronoun, which is called the 
object of the preposition. 

Explanation.— A preposition is never used, except with a noun or pro- 
noun-its object— and the two words invariably form a combination— a phra?f 
—which is used as an adjeotive or an adverbial modifier. 

Analyze the following sentences repeatedly, using this as a model: 

"A life of prayer is a life of heaven." 



( life E.l. is j life R. 2. ) 



( A R.12. ) ( a ) 



of 



prayer R. 7. ) of heaven R. 7. ) 



"A life of prayer is a life of heaven" is a sentence; declarative; simple. 
Life is the subject; is is the copula; life is the predicate. The subject, 
life, is modified by a, an adjective, and by the phrase, of prayer; of being 
the preposition, and prayer its object. The predicate, life, is modified by a, 
an adjective, and by the phrase, of heaven; of being the preposition, and 
heaven its object. 

1. Mr. Dodd is wealthy. 2. He is a man of wealth. 3. Henry is 
strong. 4. He is a boy of strength. 5. The City of Mexico is beau- 
tiful. 6. The captain of the guard disappeared. 7. The lion is a 
beast of prey. 8. The parrot is a bird of beautiful plumage. 9. 
Hilda tore the cover of my book. 10. A man of honor will never 
forsake his friends. 

Kule 7. — The object of a preposition is in the ob- 
jective case (and should have the objective form). 

2. Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. 2. The church stands 
beside the river. 3. The artist came from Italy. 4. The crow flew 
wer XhQ hill. 5. The squirrel climbed up the tree. 6. They went 



PREPOSITIONS 



29 



to Boston. The arrow flew through the air 8. It dropped 
on the pavement. 9. The steamer moves toward the east. 
10. The dog ran around the garden. 

"It could not have been her that wrote the letter." 



cz 



R. 2. ) 



could have been 



she 



1 llPt J 



N9. 7 



that 



wrote 



letter 



Her is a violation of Rule two; it should have the nominative form, she. 
She is modified by the relative clause, that wrote the letter. 



Analyze the following sentences repeatedly and correct 
the mistakes by the application of the rules. 

"The Captain left the stores in charge of Wilson and I." 



( 


Captain 


left 


stores 6 ) 




I The J 


in 


L the J 




charge ) 








of 








Wilson%>me 7 ) 



I la a pronoun, used as the object of a preposition, it is therefore In the 
objective ca.-e, It. 7, and should have the objective form, me. 

•'The captain left the stores in charge of Wilson and me" is a sentence; 
declarative; simple. Captain is the subject; left is the predicate; stores is 
the object. The subject, Captain, is modified by the, a definitive adjective. 
The predicate, left, is modified by the phrase, in charge, and charge Is 
modified by the phrase, of Wilson and me. 

1. Who did you write to? 2. They gave the books to George 
and 7. 3. Who did you get the picture from? 4. I will a 
you and him. 5. He should have received bis share from you 
and I. • 6. Walter and me gathered these flowers in the wild 
forest. 7. He and I are cousins. 8. She and Clara are great 



30 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



friends. 9. My sister and me prepared the breakfast. 10. Him 
and I remained at the academy during the whole day. 

Remark.— The use of a preposition at the end of a sentence should be 
avoided. 

1. All the cadets were present except my brother. 2. I 
know your cousin, he who lives in Cleveland. 3. Who does 
the slate belong to? 4. To whom does the slate belong? 
5. Between you and I he is not noted for honesty. 6. Him 
and I were present at the time. 

"Who can he have taken it from?" 



( He 



can have taken | it ) 



from 



■ w ho- whom R. 7. ) 



Who is a violation of Rule seven; it should have the objective form, whom. 
"If I had been him I would have done the same thing" 



R. 6. ) 



I 



would have done 



i^P 



thing 



IjhDT 



No. 8 



had been 



he 



]lD 



Him is a violation of Rule two; it should have the nominative form, he. 

I is the subject, would have done, is the predicate, thing is the object. 
The predicate, would have done, is modified by the clause, if I had been he. 

Remark.— Every mistake in language is a violation 
of a Rule of Grammar. We cannot apply a single Rule 
of Grammar to a single word in a sentence without 
analyzing the sentence— or a part of it. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31 

EXAMINATION IN GRAMMAR. 

Examine the following sentences carefully. If 3^011 
find a mistake in an}- one or more of them, give the 
number of )he sentence, correct it and give } T our 
reason for Leaking the change. 

1. Him and I are old friends. 3. Neither of the boys were present. 

:. Who did your brother want? 4. Who did lie set that machine from ? 

5. I was sure that it was them. 

6. Walter is the tallest of the two boys. 

If the members of your class are prepared to correct the sen- 
tences above as they are corrected below, you may conclude that 
you are using the best method of teaching language through the 
medium of grammar. 

1. ''Him" is a violation of Rule one; it should have the 
nominative form, he. He and I are old friends. Page 17. 

2. "Who" is a violation of Rule six; it should have the 
objective form, whom. Whom did your brother want? 

3. "Were" is a violation of Rule thirteen; it should have 
the singular form, was. Neither of the boys was present. 
Page 3 ; . 

4. "Who" is a violation of Rule seven; it should have 
the objective form, whom. From whom did you get that 
machine ? 

5. "Them " is a violation of Rule two ; it should have the 
nominative form, they, 

6. "Tallest" is an adjective used in comparing two per- 
sons, it should, therefore, have the comparative form, taller. 

If the members of the class cannot analyze and correct the 
sentences above as rapidly as they can talk, there is something 
deficient in the method of instruction and you had b< 
review, commencing with page seventeen. 

Remark.— }-;very class in the fourth or fifth grade should do the work in 
that section known as Stepping Stones, beginning with pi 



32 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



15. AGREEMENT OF VERBS. 



Speaking of ourselves 



■ 



Singular. 

I am, 



Plural. 

We are. 



J 



Speaking of other 
persons or things : 



was. I We were 

He is. They are. 

He was. They were. 

He has. They have. 

w He writes. They write. 

Singular forms of the verb, to be, are am, was, is. 

Plural forms are were and are. 

Of verbs in general it may be said, when speaking of persons and 
things in present time: 

Singular verbs end in s. Plural verbs do not 

end in s. 

. ^Singular: The boy reads well. 
ISumber< to , * „ 

(Plural:. The boys read well. 

Correct the following sentences, using the following as models: 
"Many members of the House of Lords was absent at the time." 

Was is a verb, having the plural subject, members, therefore it should 
have the plural form, were ; R. 13. 

Rule 13. — A Verb must agree with its subject in 
number. 

<( The president, the auditor and the secretary of state writes 
letters every day." 
Write* is a violation of rule thirteen; it should have the plural torn*, 



DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES, 33 

Remark.— The pronoun you is plural in form, and should be followed by 

a verb in the plural, even when a represents a singular noun. 

Sentences to be collected: 

1. Mr. Johnson and his brother toas at the meeting. 2. Tim3 
and tide waits for no man. 3. He works at the mill, and his brother 
and sister stays in the office. 4. Your uncle, in company with two 
young men, were here. 5. His talents, his wisdom, and his per- 
sonal appearance attracts attention. 6, George, together with his 
sister, are attending school. 7. Ambition and avarice in man is a 
source of xmhappiness. 8. The horse and the hero falls together. 
9, A number of horses, together with a large amount of other 
property, were destroyed by fire last night. 10. A large crowd of 
soldiers, sailors, physicians, lawyers, farmers and mechanics toere 
collected. 

C Transitive, The king protected the people. 

Verbs < Intransitive, The king arrived in time. 

(. Copulative, Am, was, is, are, were, nominative, R. 2. 

The Definitive Adjectives, each, every, either, 
and neither, when used as nouns, are singular. As 
the subjects of sentences, they should be followed by 
verbs in the singular. As adjectives, they modify sin- 
gular nouns only. 

Correct the following sentences, using this as a model*. 

"Either of the two roads lead to town." 



Neither 



of 



leads 13 



roads 7 ) 
UheJ jtwoT " 



to 



town 



Lead Is a verb, having the singular subject, either, therefore it should 
have the singular form, leads, R. 13. 

1. Every one of the pupils were provided with paper by the 
teacher. 2. Each of the boys write seven pages a day. 3. Neither 
of the lessons were well prepared. 4. Neither of the men were at 
the office. 5. Neither 01 the houses stand alone. 6. Every one of 
the officers do their duty well. 



34 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Remark.— -The pronoun, them, should never be used to point out a noun 
Instead of this or that, these or those. 

Two adjectives only, this and that, have plural 
forms, viz. : these and those. There are, however, 
many others that are in their nature either singular or 
plural. 

Remark.— This and these are applied to things near the speaker, tSiat 
and those to things distant either in time or space. 

Rule 22. An adjective and the noun which it 
modifies should agree in number. 

Examples. — This book, this kind, that book, that kind, these books, those 
books, several hats, both hands, an hour, this sort, that sort. 

Correct the following sentences, using this as a model: 

"I have read some of those kind of books." 



d 



have read 



some 



of 



of 



) 



kind 7 ) 
[ that J 



books 



Those is an adjective, modifying the singular noun, kind, therefore, it 

should have the singular form, that; R. 22. 

1. I would like some of them cherries. 2. Nellie had some of 
those kind. 3. Jennie does not like these kind. 4. She wants 
those sort. 5. My uncle bad some of them kind of apples. 6. He 
always kept these kind for his own use, and he generally gave 
those sort away. 7. Them boys took my books, and they left them 
other books on the desk. 8. Those sort of pictures are quite com- 
mon. 9. I like these kind better. 

Questions.— What is the singular form of the verb, walk? were? know? 
are? ride? give? have? drink? run? sing? What is the plural form of 
the verb, am? is? works? writes? lives? was? rules? 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 35 

EXERCISES. 

To be corrected — not analyzed: 

1. There is several hundred people in the valley. 2. Was you 
there on Saturday? 3. Circumstances alters cases. 4. Peaches 
is very scarce this season. 5. Has the children taken your hat? 
6. There is hardly any apples on the tree. 7. Several parts of a 
broken rope was twisted around it. 8. There is fine opportunities 
for energetic young men here. 9. What's them things for? 
20. Those three books has cost me seven dollars. 

2. Them people lived in houses that was built on piles. 
2. Two of my little friends has written a letter to you. 3. Three 
coats is two too many for one boy. 4. No two of them was alike. 
5. Has the papers been delivered? 6. He and Eugene goes to 
market every day. 7. Was you at home last night? 8. Those 
kind of people are never satisfied. 9. Which of these two books 
are yours? 10. Them apples will be wasted. 11. These sort of 
expressions should be avoided. 12. Either him or her have taken 
my books. 

14. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

Comparison is a variation in form of the adjective 
to express different degrees of quality ; as good, bet- 
ter, best. 

The Positive degree ascribes to an object the sim- 
ple quality; as, "He is a wise man." 

The Comparative degree ascribes to one of two 
objects a higher or lower degree of the quality than 
that expressed by the positive. 

Kxplanation.— The Comparative decree is used when two things are 
compared. It generally ends In r or er: lie is the wiser of the two men. 

The Superlative degree ascribes the highest or 
lowest degree of the quality to one of more than two 
objects. 



36 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



Explanation.— The Superlative degree is used when more than two 
things are compared. It generally ends in est: He is the wisest of all the 
men. 



Comparison 

of 
Adjectives. 



Positive, Simple form. 
Comparative, er. Two things. 
Superlative, est. More than two things. 



Correct the following sentences, using this as a model: 
"Eugene is the oldest of the two boys." 



( Eugene 



is 



of 



older 
I the J 



boys ) 

I the J I twoT " 

Oldest is an adjective modifying the predicate, boy, understood. Since 
only two persons are compared, it is in the comparative degree and should 
have the comparative form, older; Or: 

Oldest, is an adjective modifying the subject, Eugene; R. 23. Since 
only two persons are compared, it is the comparative degree, and it 
should have the comparative form, older, 

••Eugene is the older of the two boys" is a sentence; declarative; simple. 
Eugene is the subject; is is the copula; older is the predicate, and is mod- 
ified by the phrase, of boys; boys is modified by the and two, definitive ad' 
jectiv^s. 

1 . My book is the best of the two. 2. Willie is the stronger of the 
three boys. 3. Of the four doors, this is the larger. 4. Of the five 
pictures, this one is the prettier. 5. Frank is the best reader of the 
two boys, and Maggie is the best writer of all the girls. 6. Man is 
the greater of all coated beings. 7. Hannibal was the bravest of 
the two generals. j. Of all the drawings, Percy's is the neater and 
the better. 9. Of the four pieces of lace, this is, perhaps, the finer. 
10. Of the two evils choose the least. 11. Which of these two 
instruments is the best? 12. Lillie is the eldest of my two sisters. 
13. The younger of the four brothers is the taller. 14. Of the two, 
I consider this the worst. 15. Which is the eldest, Blanch or 
Adelle? 16. This knife is the sharpest of the two. 



ADVERBS. 37 

Adjectives of two or more syllables are generally 
compared by prefixing more and most, or less and least; 
as, beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful; able, 
less able, least able. 

Remark. — Some adjectives aro compared irregularly; as, good, better, 

best; little, less, least; much, more, most; bad, worse, worst; fore, former, 
foremost. 

15. ADVERBS. 

An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning 
of a verb, an adjective, a participle, or another 
adverb. 

Adverbs may be divided into five general classes: 
adverbs of manner, of degree, of time, of place, 
and of cause. 

Adverbs of manner answer the question: How? 

r How? 

How much? 

Why? Wherefore? 

Where? Whither? Whence? 

When? How long? How often? 



Adverbs answer 
the questions : 



Adverbs of Degree answer the questions : How 
much? How little? 

1. His mind was wholly absorbed. 2. He was almost lost. 3. 
James can only read. l. He scarcely moves* 5. They labored long 
enough. 6. We were almost ready. 7. This work is much better. 
8. It was wholly destroyed. 9. They bad partly engaged him. 
10. The penalty was too severe. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Adverbs of Time answer the questions : When ? 
How long? How often? 

1. The doctor dines early. 2. You may call again. 3. We sel- 
dom go away. 4. I have seen you often. 5. The doctor sometimes 
smokes. 6. He seldom chews. 7. Some flowers always bloom 
early. 8. Dr. Brown lived here formerly. 9. Thrice they offered 
him a crown. 

Adverbs of Place answer the questions : Where ? 
From what place? To what place? 

1. They did not know him there. 2. The man stood here. 3. He 
Will go hence. 4. They shot their arrows away. 5. The sailor 
went aloft. 6. He will come down again. 7. They climb aloft. 
8. He went below. 

Adverbs of Cause answer the questions : Why? 
Wherefore? 

Interrogative Adverbs are such as are used in 
asking questions ; as, Why have you broken your con- 
tract ? Whither has he gone ? 

Remark.— The words yes and no are regarded as adverbs used as entire 
sentences in elliptical form; as "Will you go?" "Yes" (I will go); "No" (I 
will not go). 

16. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

Many adverbs admit of comparison. 

Some adverbs are compared by adding er and est to the simple 
form ; as, fast, faster, fastest; often, oftener, oftenest; soon, sooner, 
soonest. 

Adverbs ending in ly are generally compared by prefixing more, 
and most, less and least to the simple form; as, wisely, more wisely, 
most wisely; swiftly, less svnftly, least swiftly . 

Some adverbs are compared irregularly; as, well, better, best; 
ill, worse, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most, etc. 



ADVERBIAL PHRASE. 39 

An Adverbial Phrase is a combination of words 
used as a single adverb; as, "In general" "hand in 
hand," "one by one." 

EXERCISES. 

To be analyzed: 

1. They lived very happily. 2. The moments fly rapidly. 3. I 
came again, and away he went. 4. We reproved him severely, but 
he did not care. 5. The doctor was very gentle and exceedingly kind. 
C. We treated him handsomely. 7 The little boy was very naughty. 
8. He signed it then and there. 9. The mystery will be explained 
by and by. 10. Mr. Willard and his companion were greatly dis- 
appointed. 

2. I have never seen him. 2. You must do that no more. 3. He 
should speak more distinctly. 4. That ponderous locomotive moves 
that long train quite easily. 5. We were greatly excited. 6. That 
fine new house was shaken violently. 7. I have read it again and 
again. 8. He will do so no more. 9. Perchance you are the man. 

10. The very fairest flowers usually wither the most quickly. 

11. They travel side by side. 12. The children walk hand in hand. 
13. The birds flew away one by one. 14. The athlete climbed the 
ladder hand overhand. 15. He lost his influence little by little. 



7 4. UtZim€d (Zf. v^zj^, 



*G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

17. PREPOSITIONS-Understood. 

In many expressions in our language, the preposi- 
tions are wanting". In such cases they are said to 
be understood; as, "George gave (x) me his book." 

Prepositional Phrases are sometimes modified by adverbs; as, 
r, He and his brother sailed nearly around the globe." 



( He and brother sailed 1 



(his) 



around 



globe. 



(nearly R.18.) 



1. Blucher arrived just in time. 2. She threw the ball almost 
over the house. 3. Good humor spreads happiness around just as 
the sun sheds its light on all (just in manner in which) . 4. The 
house stands exactly on the line. 5. The church is just around the 
corner. 6. He goes home immediately after dinner. 

2. That book, Hayden's Dictionary of Dates, is valued (x) three 
dollars. 2. He remains at the office (x) six hours (x) every day. 
3. They return (to) home in the evening. 4. Mr. Hall is worth 
(x) a million of dollars. 5. We don't care (x) a straw. 6. Spring 
has already covered his grave (x) twelve inches with flowers. 

7. The poor, dissipated student was refused (x) his diploma. 

8. The ship sailed (x) four knots (x) an hour. 9. He wore his 
coat (x) cloak-fashion. 10. That new work, Polar and Tropical 
America, is worth (x) five dollars. 11. Give (x) me some of 
those pamphlets, The Signs of the Times. 12. I will pay (to) you 
eome time (x) next week. 

CAPITALS. — Begin with capitals nouns, adjectives, and verbs, in 
the titles of books, or the headings of compositions. 

Questions.— What is an adverb? Adverbs that end in ly are of what 
class? What is the difference in form between an adverb of manner and an 
adjective? Name the different classes of adverbs. What are interrogative 
adverbs? Is an adverbial phrase an inseparable combination? Would yoii 
treat an adverbial phrase as a single word? Compare the adverbs, Xatf 
swiftly, well, wisely, ill, and much. 



SUBJUN< TIVE CLAUSES. 



41 



SUBJUNCTIVE CLAUSES. 

The Subjunctive Clause is used to express a con- 
dition, a doubt, a wish, a motive, a supposition, or a possi- 
bility. It is generally introduced by such conjunctions as 
if, though, unless, except, lest, that, etc. 

Rule 17. In subjunctive clauses the plural form of 
the verb is generally used, even with singular subjects. 

Analyze and correct the following sentences: 

"Though he slays me, yet will I guard, cherish and protect my 
brother." 



will guard, cherish, protect 



brother 



my 



( though j 



( he slays slay R. 17. 



Slays may be correct in accordance with R. 13, but it is a violation of 
R. 17 and it should have the subjunctive or plural form, slat/. 

1. Make peace with thine enemy, lest he injures thee. 2. It is 
my de-ire that he goes at once. 3. Unless the miller grinds our 
com. we will have no meal. 1. If it pains this evening, I will re- 
main at home. 5. The general commanded thai the traitor dies 
for the crime, fi. 1 wish that I was he. 7. If thy brother offend - 
thee, rebuke him; if he repent-, forgive him. Page 71. 

Question. — }\<r.\ are we to know thai 8lay$ is b verb in the subjunctive 

mode? 

Answer.— if n i- in g clause which expresses a condition, ;i doubt, a 
wish, a moti reposition or a possibility, it is in a subjunctive clause, 

and thf- verb is therefore, in the subjunctive mode and is governed by 

R. 17, if not in such clause, it is governed by R. 13. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

INFINITIVE PHRASE. 

The Infinitive is a form of verb that may be used as 
a ?wu?i, an adjective or an adverb, as, To labor is the lot 
of man. Harold wanted to go, A desire to steal is a 
mania with some people. 

The Infinitive Phrase is a combination of the infini- 
tive with one or more other words from which it cannot be 
separated without destroying the meaning. It may be 
used as a noun, an adjective or an adverb. Page 52. 

Examples.— He wanted his brother to go. For him to remain was the 

desire of his brother. A desire to resist you, prompted him. 

Rule 16. — The subject of an infinitive is in the objec- 
tive case and should have the objective form. Page 59. 

Analyze and correct the following sentences: 

"The sheriff commanded George and I to retire from the room." 



sheriff 



commanded 




The j 



George and I are the two subjects of the infinitive, to retire, I is therefore 
in the objective case according to R. 16, and should have the objective 
form, nie. 

1. The instructor wanted you and I to remain. 2. The king 
required he and his followers to leave the country. 3. The officer 
heard he and I read the papers. 4. The conductor commanded 
him and I to leave the car. 5. My brother saw Henry and me 
run to the door. 6, The teacher will make her and her companion 
regret their conduct. 7. Let Florence and I go to the post office. 



COPULATIVE VERB. 45 

18. COPULATIVE YERB-Conipleted. 

A Copulative Verb is one which is used to join a 
predicate to a subject and to make an assertion ; as, 
"George is honest ;" They seem confident of success ; " 
"He was appointed commander of the fleet ;" "It 
was he." 

Explanation.— The verb, to be, is the only pure copulative. But the 

verbs, seem, appear, become, and many others are used as copulative verbs. 
Also the passive forms, is named, is styled, is called, is elected, is appointed, etc., 
have the force of copulatives and are regarded as such. 

Definition. — Any verb for which some form of 
the verb, to be, may be substituted in a sentence, 
without destroying the meaning, is a copulative verb. 

"Solomon, the wisest of men, was anointed King of Israel." 



( Solomon R.l. was anointed R.13. -p King R.2. 1 



wisest R.4. J 

len R.7. ') 



(Jhej 



of 



"Solomon, the wisest of men, was anointed King of Israel," is a sen- 
tence; declarative; simple. Solomou is the subject; was anointed is the 
copula; King is the predicate. Solomon is modified by wisest, an appos- 
itive; wisest is modified by the, a definitive adjective, and by the phrase, of 
men. King is modified by the phrase, of Israel. 

Wisest is an adjective used as a noun, R. I, or an adjective modifying 
man, understood, R. 12. 

1. lie seems weary. 2. He is weary. 3. He appeared an artist in 
manner. 4. In manner he toas an artist. 5. Mr. Sumner was elected 
Senator before his death. G. He was a Senator before his death. 
7. Mr. Fleming icas appointed Governor of Dakota. 8. Mr* Fleming 
toas Governor of Dakota. 9. George Hill was called a, wealthy 
man. 

To the Teacher. — Careless, thoughtless work on the part of the pupils— toe. 
many mistakes in the diagrams (analysis) should not be tolerated. The excrcUcj 
in false syntax should be reviewed frequently. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. He was called John. 2. Charles Slayback was elected President 
of the Merchants Exchange. 3. Alexander, King of Macedon, was 
styled The Great. 4. She was named Elizabeth. 5. By their election 
they were constituted members of the organization. 6. He was 
esteemed a gentleman of high order. 7. All his efforts proved fail- 
ures. 8. His two sons were considered excellent workmen. 9. He 
seems an old man since his return from abroad. 10. The road be- 
came rough. 11. He was regarded wealthy. 12. Walter Scott is 
called the Wizard of the North. 13. William, Duke of Normandy, 
is styled The Conqueror. 14. Those pupils were considered smart 
but these seemed slow. 15. Walter Stuart appeared shabby but he 
was considered wealthy. 

Suggestion.— When the body of a letter like the one below is presented 
in this work it is with the suggestion that it be written on paper in good let- 
ter form with all the missing parts supplied by the pupils. 

S. LETTER. 

My bear Mother, — Your very affectionate letter was received 
this morning, and I regret to say it reminds me that I have been 
too negligent in writing to you. I confess that, in my anxiety tcJ 
be successful in business, I am too apt to forget that you may be 
lonely without me, but be assured I never cease in my affections, 
nor for a minute forget how much I owe you. 

My business expectations have been more than realized, and 
my hopes for the future are such, that I think I shall very soon 
be able to offer you a home with me in this city. Therefore, 
dear mother, be of good cheer, for while the world goes happily 
with me, its sunshine shall rest on you. With my regards to all 
our friends, I remain — 

Punctuation. — Parenthetical words, phrases and clauses should be 
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. They ere such 
words, phrases and clauses as are not essential to the meaning, andmay- A 
therefore, be omitted. 

Questions.— Define copulative verb. Name the pure copulatives. Nam© 
other verbs used as copulatives. What noun understood does wisest in the 
diagramed sentence modify? When adjectives are used as nouns, are the 
nouns generally understood? Certainly. What punctuation point is usually 
placed after the salutation of a letter? 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 45 

19. COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

' A Complex Sentence consists of a principal sen- 
tence, one of the words of which is modified by a 
subordinate sentence — a clause. 

A clause may be used as an adjective or ad- 
verbial modifier, or as the Subject of a sentence, 
as the Object of a transitive verb, or as the Pred- 
icate of a sentence. 

An Element may be a word, a phrase, or a 
clause. 

An Adjective Element is a word, phrase, or 

clause modifying a noun. 

An Adverbial Element is a word, phrase, or 
clause modifying a verb, adjective, or adverb. 

An Objective Element is a word, phrase, or 
clause used as the object of a transitive verb. 

20. CONJUNCTIONS. 

Co-ordinate Conjunctions are those which join 
elements of the same rank or name. 

Examples. — And, but, also, however, else, othencise, or, nor, hence, thence, 
then, therefore, v:hertfore, for, because, so, consequently, accordingly 

Subordinate Conjunctions are those which are 
used in complex sentences to join the subordinate or 
modifying sentence to the word modified in the prin- 
cipal sentence. 

Examples.- When, after, where, if, unless, ercept, beeatue, since, although, 
ikough t for, whereas, lest, ere, before, until, whilst, whence, whether, than. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Explanation. — Sometimes two or more words enter into the 
composition of a connective. In such cases the several words 
must be taken together, treated as one conjunction, and placed 
in the same circle in the diagram. 

Examples.— As well as, as if, not only, but also, except that, for as much 
as, but likewise, notwithstanding that. 

Correlatives are used in pairs. The two words 
which form the complete conjunction stand at dif- 
ferent places in the sentence. 

Examples. — He controls both public and private affairs. Either come or 
send quickly. Neither act nor promise hastily. She speaks so low, that she 
Is not heard. She is not so amiable as her sister. You are as tall as he ia. 
As he thinks so he acts. 



<?i€Z'yii&zed &jf <z>&-/it'C4%, '2^e4^e dfa&v *z>Ws&( 't<zw4>'m> etzve'Pi,. 
'^/iizszt O* 'i^ttt4>'?t- <£ri€Wt, &<l t/edfrccw trie <&€£<&£# <? 



<zsyi 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 4 7 

Prepositions are frequently composed of two 
words. In the diagram and in the analysis such 
combinations should be treated as a single word. 

Examples.- From beyond, from within, according to, contrary to, as to, as 
for, because of, instead of, out of, over against, from betwixt, from among, ow- 
ing to, 

A Conjunctive Adverb is a conjunction which 
carries with it the force of an adverb. 

Explanation. — A conjunctive adverb is generally equivalent 
to two phrases; as, "Herman will go when (at the time at which) 
you return;'' "We will remain while (during time during which) 
you are gone." 

Examples.— When, zvhile, as, after, like, before, how, till, since, etc. 

Words of Euphony are words which are placed 
in a sentence for the sake of sound or for the sake 
of rhetorical effect. They add to the elegance of 
expressions, but in the analysis they may often be 
omitted, since they have but slight, if any, gram- 
matical connection with the other words in the sen- 
tence. 

Examples.— There were no idlers there. It was cowardly In him to fly. 
Now, then, we are prepared. He, himself, destroyed his chances. Well, who 
are you? Indeed, and what did he say? He taught even crows to 3ir.g. 
There, now, you have said enough. 

Chicago, Sept. 26, 1889. 
Mr. Henry Maynard, 

Kacine, Wis. 
Dear Sir, — We take pleasure in sending this day, by your or- 
der, the enclosed invoice of goods, amountiug to $1,400, subject 
to 5 per cent discount — prompt cash. 

We have no hesitation in opening an account and allowing you 
our best terms. 

Trusting that the goods, which are shipped by Express, will 
arrive safe and meet your favor, we are, 

Yours truly, 

Herrmann & Co. 



48 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Analyze the following sentences, using this as a model: 

"I thought when I saw you last that I should never see you 
again." 



o 



thought 



[ when | 



at 





L2_ 


should see you j 


\ 


lneverj[againj 



time ) 



saw 



at 



you e ) 



which ) 



This is a sentence ; declarative ; complex. I thought is the principal sen- 
tence; when I saw you last, and that I should never see you again, 

are subordinate sentences. 

I is the subject of the principal sentence; thought is the predicate. The 
predicate thought, is modified by the clause, when I saw you last, an ad- 
verbial element, and by the clause, that I should never see you again, an 
objective element. I is the subject of the objective clause ; should see is the 
predicate and is modified by you, an objective element, and by never and 
again, adverbial elements. I is the subject of the adverbial clause; saw 
is the predicate and is modified by you, an objective element, and by last, an 
adverbial element. When is the connective. 

Explanation. — That is a word of euphony and therefore omit- 
ted in the analysis. When is a Conjunctive Adverb equivalent to 
the two phrases, at time, at which; time being the antecedent of 
the relative, which. 

EXERCISES. 

To -be analyzed: 

Clauses used as Adverbial elements : 

1. When he returns, all will be well. 2. While he sang, they 
listened. 3. I shall leave after you. 4. He builds a palace of 
ice where the torrents fall. 5. That horse will run away unless you 
catch him. 6. He proved unworthy of confidence, therefore he was 
dismissed from the office. 7. Mr. Allan will be at your door before 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 49 

you are ready. 8. All will be well at the time at ichich he returns. 
0. They listened at the time at ivhich he sang. 

Clauses used as Objective elements : 

1. All said that love had suffered wrong, 2. The fires of the 
bivouac destroyed what (that which) the artillery had spared. 

3. His favorite son said, " You must give me back my father." 4. His 
father replied, "You may do as (that ivhich) you please. " 

Punctuation, — The first word of a direct quotation must begin 
with a capital and the quotation must be separated from the rest of the 
sentence by commas and by quotation marks. 

Clauses used as Adjective elements : 

2. The steamer, Florida, which fell a prey to the cruel waves, had 
made many journeys across the ocean. 2. There is a limit beyond 
which forbearance is not a virtue. 3. Not one of the authors who 
mention the incident, has a correct knowledge of it. 4. They best 
can bear reproof, who merit praise. 

Clauses used as the Subjects of sentences: 

3. That I have been deceived is evident. 2. That he is not your 
friend appears probable. 3. " Who are you?" was the question. 

4. "I am a dangerous man," was the reply. 5. "Whom the gods 
lore (they) die young," is said of you. 6. Who the old gentleman was, 
was a matter of curiosity. 

Clauses used as Predicates of sentences: 

1. One of his favorite maxims was, keepyourown secrets. 2. Now 
the question is, who committed the deed? 3. The reply of the Lord 
Chief Justice was, "Deliver it to the King." 4. The answer was, 
" Where is Ihe King." 

Clauses used as Appositives: 

1. It was now a matter of curiosity, vjho the old gentleman was. 
?. I am quite sure (of the fact) that Mr. Butler drove by the Court- 
house this morning. 3. It is certain that you have deceived me. 
i. The assumption that our cause is declining is utterly false. 



50 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



"It matters not when the Havana was built, the fact remains, 
it is a powerful man-of-war." 



c 



It 



matters 



f Havana 
(the] 



was built) 
[when J 



c 




ZD 



fact 



remains 



( it | is t man-of-war ) 
[al t powerful j 

In this sentence the subject, it, is modified by the clause, when the 
Havana was built, an appositive; and the subject fact, Is modified by the 
clause, it is a powerful man-of-war, an appositive. 

Clauses used as elements of all kinds: 

1. It matters not when the book was written the fact remains, 
it is a very excellent work. 2. Mr. Brown completed what (that 
which) his companions attempted. 3. The truth is we are heartily 
tired of the whole affair. 4. The fact that we have a glorious 
country is impressive to the average Englishman. 5. When they 
will return to the city is still a matter of doubt. 6. My books as 
well as my stationery are gone. 7. He is not only good, but also 
brave. 8. Geo. W. Peabody was both a public benefactor and a good 
citizen. 9. You must either go or send a messenger. 10. lamas 
old as you are. II. It came from over the sea. 12. This noun is 
in the nominative case according to a rule of syntax. 13. He held 
the property contrary to law. 14. You may have this instead of 
that. 15. My knife was taken out of the drawer. 16. The pointer 
stands over against the wall. 17. He said that he would call. 
18. There were no provisions in the settlement. 19. Now, then, 
are you ready? 20. Indeed, and what do you want? 

Questions.— What is the difference between a complex and a compound 
sentence? What is an adjective element? An objective element? Subor- 
dinate conjunctions are used in what kind of sentences? What conjunctions 
are used in pairs? Are correlative conjunctions treated as a single word in 
the analysis? What are words of euphony? Name two words which are fre- 
quently used as subjects of sentences. Name two that are sometimes used 
as appositives. 



PROPERTIES OF PRONOUNS. 
PRONOUN and ANTECEDENT. 



51 



A Pronoun is a word that stands for some noun 
called its antecedent, as The captai?i ) what can I say of 
him? 

The Antecedent of a pronoun is the noun for which 
the pronoun stands. 

Re mark. --Every pronoun is governed by two rules: one for its case and 
the other for its gender, person and number. Page 84. 

Analyse and correct the following sentences: 
"Every one must be the judge of their own feelings." 



( 


one 


must be 


T 


judge ) 






Every 




• 


of 




the 














feelings 


) 








their his R. 9. 





Their has the subject, on©, for its antecedent, it is therefore singular 
and should have the singular form, his. "Every one must be the judge of 
hi- own feelings." 

Rule 9. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents 
in number. 



i. The Persian took native clothing and gave them to Polo. 
Everyone of the soldiers should obey their commander. 
None of the candidates can, with propriety, recommend thems< I 
\ The convention was unanimous in their action. 5. Thegather- 
ing was so dense thai we could not go through them. 6. Every 
one of the soldiers should follow the instructions of their com- 
mander. 7. We have received some news from Cuba and they 
an- di.-eouraging. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



22. IXFIXITITES. 

The Infinitive is a form of the verb that may be 
used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. It may 
usually be known by the sign, to, placed before it. 
The infinitive does not agree with its subject in num- 
ber and person. 

EXAMPLES. 

As subjects— nouns: 

To play is pleasant. To err is human. To steal is sinful. To 
strive is our duty. To labor is the lot of man. 

As objects — nouns: 

Horace wanted to go. His brother desired to stay. He de- 
sires to speak. We tried to retreat. 

As adverbial modifiers — adverbs: 

The boys went to the river to fish. He is gone to the field 
to work. We endeavored to act. The speaker proceeded to explain. 

As adjective modifiers — adjectives: 

A desire to steal is a mania with some people. He has with- 
drawn his challenge to fight. He has a faculty to write. They 
made an effort to escape. 

Remark.— The infinitive is sometimes used as a part of a Transitive Verb ; 
as, "In the play he was to imagine that his father was dead." 

The sign, to, is sometimes omitted. This generally 
occurs after such words as bid f dare, hear, feel, let, 
make, need, see, etc. 

We saw him (x) fall. They hade him (x) depart. George 
heard them (x) call. His father made him fx) go to school. He 
felt the fish (x) nibble at the hook. We saw the vessel (x) sail. 



INFINITIVES. 



53 



Analyze the sentences given under this topic repeatedly: 
"He and his father desire to go to the city." 



( He and father 


desire 


10 go 6 


) 


this J 




to 




city 





"He add is father desire to go to the city" is a sentence; declarative; 
simple. He and father are the subjects; desire is the predicate. The sub- 
ject, father, is modified by his, an adjective element; the predicate, degire, 
is modified by the infinitive, to go, an objective element; to go is modified 
by the phrase, to the city, an adverbial element; and city is modified by 
the, an adjective element. 

1. The children want to go to the park. 2. I would like to run 
home. 3. George desires to go with his father to the Exposition. 
4. The boy and his companion wanted to catch the owl. 5. The 
prisoner tried to escape. 6. His companions wanted to run. 7. The 
owl undertook to fly. 

The Infinitive Phrase is a combination of the in- 
finitive with one or more other words from which it can- 
not be separated without destroying the meaning. 
Like the infinitive, itself, it may be used as a noun, 
an adjective or an adverb. 

As subjects — nouns. 

"To conceal the truth is often highly criminal." 



( To conceal 



truth 



TtheT 



criminal 



[ often | [highly ] 



} 



"To conceal the truth is often highly criminal" is a sentence; declar- 
ative; simple. The infinitive phrase, to conceal the truth, is the subject; 
criminal is the predicate; is is the copula. The infinitive, to conceal, is 
modified by truth, an objective element; truth is modified by th«, an adjec- 
tive element; criminal is modilied by often and highly, adverbial ele- 
ments. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. To see the sun is pleasant. 2. To do his duty should be the 
desire of every man. 3. To read a good book is a great pleasure. 
4. To conquer the world was the ambition of Alexander the 
Great. 5. To control the crowned heads of the Continent was the 
desire of Napoleon Bonaparte. 6. To serve his country faithfully 
is the duty of every citizen. 7. To aid the weak is an act of 
charity. 

Remark.- The pupils should be required to reconstruct the sentences 
presented at each recitation, so as to give as many different expressions as 
possible to the same thought. Thus: To conceal the truth Is often highly 
criminal; concealing the truth is often highly criminal ; that a person should 
conceal the truth is often highly criminal. 

As predicates — adjectives. 

4 'These obstacles are to be overcome." 



c 



are -r to be overcome 



Obstacles 

T these J 

"These obstacles are to be overcome" is a sentence ; declarative ; simple. 
Obstacles is the subject; the infinitive phrase, to be overcome, is the pred- 
icate; are is the copula. Obstacles is modified by these, an adjective ele- 
ment. 

1, His command is to be obeyed. 2. The rules of school are 
to be observed. 3. His work is to be done. 4. The factory is 
yet to be built. 5. He is to go to school. 6. The book is yet to 
be written. 

As subjects and predicates. 

"To be an industrious student is to be an excellent scholar." 







( To be j student ) 
I industrious | 


i g m ( to be f scholar 5 J 


texellentl 



The Infinitive phrase, to be an industrious student, is the subject; the 
infinitive phrase, to be an excellent scholar, is the predicate ; is is the cop- 
ula. Student is modified by an and industrious, adjective elements; 
scholar is modified by an and excellent, adjective elements. (See page 51.) 

Rule 5. — A noun or pronoun used independently is 
in the nominative absolute case. 



INFINITIVES. 



55 



1, To bo a good man is to be a happy man. 2. To be good is 
to be happy. 3. To be industrious is to be successful. 4. To be 
noble in spirit is to be great in deed. 5. To be insincere is to be 
dishonest. G. Being sincere is bein<r honest. 7. To destroy a 
man's prospects is to blight a man's hopes. 

As adjective modifiers — adjectives. 

44 A desire to resist you prompted the proposal." 



f Desire 


prompted 


proposal J 


laj 




| the | 




to resist you 6 ) 



" A desire to resist you prompted the proposal" is a sentence ; declarative ; 
simple. Desire is the subject; prompted is the predicate. The subject, 
desir«, is modified by a, an adjective element, and by the infinitive phrase, 
to resist you, an adjective element; the infinitive, to reaist, Is modified by 
you, an objective element; the predicate, prompted, is modified by propos- 
al, an objective element; proposal is modified by the, an adjective element. 

1. We should make efforts to improve. 2. I have permission 
to go. 3. A determination to conquer inspired him. 4. His will- 
ingness to be just in the matter, was apparent to all. 

As adverbial modifiers — adverbs, 

u Washington sent an officer to reconnoiter the enemy's camp/' 



f Washington 



sent 



officer 



L55J 



to reconnoiter 18 



camp 



[ the j [ enemy 's7 



d 



"Washington sent an officer to reconnoiter the enemy's camp" la n 

tence; declarative; simple. Washington is the subject; sent is the pred- 
icate. The predicate, sent, is modified by officer, an objective element, and 
by the infinitive phrase, to reconnoiter the enemy's camp, an adv 
element; the infinitive, to reconnoiter, is modified by camp, an objective 
element, and camp is modified by the and enemy's, adjective elements. 



56 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. We are prepared to act. 2. We are prepared for action, 
3. William was invited to attend lectures. 4. I am to settle this 
business. 5. We are ready to depart, 6. Mr. W. H. Walker was 
too late to take the cars. 

As appositives — nouns. 

"It is our duty to make good use of our time." 



c 



faty ) 



It 



is 



[ our 



( to make 



R. 4. 



use 



of 



IgopiL 



D 



time 

1 OPTl 



It Is the subject; duty is the predicate; is is the copula. It is modified 
by the infinitive phrase, to make good use of our time, an appositive ; to 
make is modified by use, an objective element. 

1. It is easy to be deceived. 2. It has been my desire to go 
with you. 3. It is wicked to deceive the innocent. 4. It is wrong 
to excite false hopes* 

As objects of prepositions — nouns* 

"The word was too hard for the child to spell." 



( Word 


was j hard 


) 


I the J 




for 


[tool 




( child 16 | to spell 
\ UheJ 7 


o 



The predicate, hard, is modified by the phrase, for the child to spell. 

The preposition, for, has for its object the infinitive phrase, the child to 
spell. 



Child is the subject of the infinitive, to spell, therefore it is in the objec- 
tive case. R. 16. 



INFINITIVES. 



57 



Rule 16. — The subject of an infinitive is in the 
objective case. 

The phrase, the child to spell, considered as one word (a noun) istheob- 
Jectol the preposition, for, R. 7. 

1. The cake is too rich for the children to eat. 2. Those boxes 
were too heavy for the man to carry. 3. The child was about to 
spill the ink. 4. That window is about to fall on your lingers. 

Remark.— Such constructions as, to be plain with you. in the following 
sentence, are considered independent, though they generally carry with 
them a modifying force. 

As independent phrases. 

"To be plain with you, I think you are mistaken. 1 ' 

[ To be j plain ) 



R. 5. 



with 



rou 



D 



think 



f yon are -r mistaken L 



The infinitive phrase, to be plain with you, is used independently, that 
if, it is used as :• noun in the nominative case absolute. I is the subject; 
think is the predicate, and is modified by the clause, you are mistaken, an 
objective element; 

The clause, you are mistaken, is used as a noun in th« objective case, 
R.6. 

1. To be frank with you, it is only a report. 2. To be honest 
with you, he told me nothing. 3. And to be plain with you, I 
think you are the more unreasonable of the two. 4. To tell the 
truth, I was inattentive. 5. To answer you candidly, I am of 
French extraction. 6. To decide finally, they must not go. 
7. To end the matter, use your own judgment. 

Punctuation. — Transposed and parenthetical words, phrases and 
clauses are usually set off by commas; as, Doubtless, this man i$ guilty. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

As objects of transitive verbs — nouns* 
"We knew him to be an artist." 



We 



knew 



(aim 16 to be 6 - p artist 19 J 

v l an i iTe, 



"We knew hini to be an artist" is a sentence ; declarative ; simple. We 
is the subject; knew is the predicate, and is modified by the infinitive phrase, 
him to be an artist, an objective element. Of the phrase, him is the sub- 
ject; to be is the infinitive; artist is the predicate, and is modified by an, an 
adjective element. 

Him is in the objective case, subject of the infinitive, to be, R. 16. 

Artist is a noun used as the predicate after the copulative verb, to be, 
therefore it is in the objective case to agree with him, R. 19. 

Rule 19. — The verb, to be, takes the same case 
after it as before. 

Remark.— It will be noticed that, in import, this rule is identical with 

Rule 2. 

1. I believe him to be an honest man. 2. I believe that he is 
an honest man. 3. He commanded the prisoner to be bound. 
4. He commanded the horse to be saddled. 5. They confessed 
themselves to be in fault. 6. We discovered him to be a sailor. 

The infinitive, to be, is frequently understood. 
This construction is sometimes called the double 
object. 

1. They appointed him (to be) president. 2. We elected Henry 
(to be) captain. 3. Samuel anointed David (to be) king. 4. They 
named him (to be) John. 5. God called the firmament (to be) 
Heaven. 6. The saints proclaim thee (to be) king. 

Punctuation. — The dash is used to denote a sudden interruption or 
hesitation of the speaker, or an abrupt change in the sentence. 



INFINITIVES. 



59 



Analyze and correct the follorcing sentences repeatedly: 
''Let they and their friends pass." 



(= 



Let 



f them and friends 16 (to) pass J 
1 their j 



They is a pronoun, used as the subject of the infinitive, (to) pass, there- 
fore it Is in the objective case, Rule 16, and should have the objective form, 
them, 

"Let them and their friends pass" is a sentence; imperative; simple. 
Thou or you understood is the subject; let is the predicate and it is mod- 
ified by the infinitive phrase, thein and their friends (to) pass, an object- 
ive element. 

Remark.— The subject of an imperative sentence is sometimes under- 
stood. (See page 27.) 

1 Your cousin wanted Albert and I to go with him to the 
country. 2. The court declared he and his brother to be insane. 
3. The teacher heard John and I recite. 4. They have requested 
you and I to remain. 5. I heard she and Lulu sing. 6. The olli- 
cers commanded he and his companion to report at once. 7. I saw 
he and Henry run. 8. Their leader ordered they and their friends 
to retire. 

2. Those who he invited to sing declined. 2. The conductor 
asked him and I to step on the car. 3. I will make he and his 
brother regret their folly. 4. He invited her mother and she to 
take seats. 5. The sentinel will not let they who have not the 
countersign, pass. G. We were hearing she and her sister recite 
some verses from Virgil. 

Analyze the following sentences repeatedly. 

"The general was reported to have been mortally wounded." 



was reported to have been -j- wounded ) 



General 



{"mortally J " 

General is the subject ; was reported to have been is the gtrcngth- 
tned copula; wounded la the | 

1, Thelakeis.s<7/<7 to be one hundred miles long. 2. The lake 



60 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



is one hundred miles long. 3. The boy appears to be ill. 4. The 
boy is ill. 5. The animal is reported to be a wolf. 6. The prisoner 
has been declared to be innocent. 7. The detective was to appear 
inattentive. 8. That venerable old gentleman seems to be their 
leader. 9. The criminal was declared to be insane. 10. The 
steamer was supposed to have been lost in the storm. 11. The mes- 
senger was known to have been detained. 12. The messenger was 
detained. 

"They who did what they pleased without regard to the rights 
of others were scoffed at by the multitude." 



They 


were 13. t scoffed at B. 23. ) 








by 






multitude 7.) 






) 


who 


did 13. that) f what 




Si 




i v 




1 




\ ( They pleased (to do) which 




^ 


regard 
















to 


wishes ) 








of 


(the) 






others 7. ) 



They is the subject of the principal sentence ; were is the copula; scoffed 
at is the predicate. The subject, they, is modified by the double clause, who 
did what they pleased, which is equivalent to who did that which they 
pleased. 

The phrase, scoffed at, is used as an adjective in the predicate modifying 
the subject, they, Rule 23. 

1. To be able to read well is a valuable accomplishment. 2. A 
constant purpose to excel marked his whole career. 3. William 
has been making efforts to improve in speaking. 4. He arrives 
in time to give his vote. 5. That is the business next to be done. 
6. He who does as he pleases, without regard to the wishes of 
others, will soon cease to do well. 7. Every man desires to live 
long, but no man would be old. 8. The maa who does as (that) 



INFINITIVES. 61 

he pleases (to do which) without regard to the wishes of others, 
will soon cease to do well. 9. To be honest with you, I think you 
(to be) (are) the most unreasonable of them all. 

2. To shirk one's duty is, to say the least, unmanly. 2. The 
children went to see the show. 3. They remained to see their 
friends. 4. We stopped to see the consul. 5. That green fruit is 
not good to eat. 6. To spend precious time foolishly is unwise. 
7. To be industrious is to be prosperous. 8. To be satisfied with 
the little that we hare is to be sufficiently wealthy. 

3. It is easy to deceive children. 2. It is pleasant to receive 
our friends. 3. It is wrong to hate our enemies. 4. To be plain 
with you, I think you the most unreasonable of them all. 5. For 
you to command is for us to obey. 6. It was to have been mine. 
7. It ought to have been given to me. 8. To open the discussion, 
I hold that art is more beautiful than nature. 9. To put it point- 
edly, that man told a falsehood. 10. To quote, u The fear of the 
Lord is the beginning of wisdom." 

ORDER FDR MONEY, 

<tz*it Art </ js^ji, -^<&7t/&ia, <^l mue-l, Ci&cvt 

<z?icz 2'J / /C l/j<^tc<z^J ', <7»m/ {•//«} ye /r my ctcc^cc^^/. 

(p /itZs'l'ted £s/ e-n-c/e'td&'K . 

Questions.— Whnt is an infinitive? An infinitive phrase? What is. a prep- 
ositional phrase? Alter what words is the sign, to, omitted in the infinitive? 
The BUbject of an infinitive is in what case? Is the infinitive, to be, ever mi - 
-'1? What are such constructions sometimes called? What is an im- 
ive sentence? (Seepage 27.) What sentences have subjects sometimes 
understood? How do you distinguish a clause or subordinate sentence from 
an Infinitive phrase? What elements are necessary in the structure of a 
clause or sentence? Subject and predicate* In the ninth sentence, first par- 
agraph above, all is generally considered an adjective modifying them; why 
not call it an appo.sitivc identifying them, R.4? In the same sentence, which 
would you supply, to be or are? Name the words ot euphony found in the 
sentences in the third paragraph above. 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

23. PARTICIPLES. 

The Participle is a form of the verb that may 
be used as a noun or an adjective. It generally ends 
in ing> ed 9 or en. 

EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS 2 

As subjects and objects — nouns. 

1. Flying tires the duck. 2. Rowing is delightful. 3. His 
playing is magnificent. 4. Samuel loves reading. 5. He delights 
in writing letters. 6. They cheered him for winning the race. 
7. He was hurt by falling. 8. George delights in riding his pony. 

As adjective modifiers — adjectives. 

1. The rain is falling. 2. The wheel was broken by the acci- 
dent- 3. The soldier was wounded by a ball. 4. They were quickly 
dispersed. 5. He will repair the broken machine. 6. Julian was 
hurt by & falling stone. 7. They will he pleased to see you. 8. The 
officer had been wounded in battle. 

Remark.— The copulative verb and the participle which follows it should 
be treated separately. The idea contained in the two words, however, is of- 
ten modified by an adverb or a phrase. (See page 21.) 

Participles and Infinitives are often used as 
parts of transitive verbs. In such cases the com- 
bination must be taken together as one word, and 
treated as a transitive verb. 

Examples.— The soldiers had been resting their horses by the roadside. 

t. The actor was to imagine that his father was dead. 3. The boys have been 
studying their lessons. 4. The infantry was to have held the mountain pass. 
5. Storms have been destroying the crops. 6. The commander was planning the 
attack. 7. The merchant ought to have sold the goods. 

Punctuation. — When a verb is omitted to avoid repetition, its place 
is usually supplied by a comma. 

Examples.— One murder makes a villain; millions, a hero. 2. War is the 
law of violence*, peace, the law of love. 



PARTICIP1 \I. PHRASES. 



03 



Analyze the following sentences repeatedly, using this as a model: 



|4 They ought to have reconnoitered the enemy's position." 



(They 



ought to have reconnoitered 



position 



[the J [enemy's J 



) 



They is the subject; ought to have reconnoitered is the predicate and 
Is modified by position, an objective element. 

1. The printers ought to be doing their work. 2. Walter ought 
to have been preparing his lesson. 3. They were to have been paint- 
ing the house. 4. They were painting the house. 5. Henry should 
have prepared his lesson. 6. I ought to have received my share of 
the work. 7. They could have taken the fort by storm. 8. You 
must have seen him on the street. 

24. PARTICIPIAL PHRASES. 

The Participial Phrase is a combination of the 
participle with one or more other words from which it 
cannot be separated without destroying the meaning. 
The phrase is used as a noun, as an adjective, or as an 
adverb. 

As subjects of sentences — nouns. 

"My being a child was a plea for my admission." 



, ^ 








[ Being y child 5 J 
[ my 8 J |jj 


was t plea 2 J 




for 




admission J 







The participial phrase, my being: a child, is the subject ; plea If the 
predicate; was la the copula. Bering la modified by my* an adjectfo 

ement ; child La modified by a, an adjective element. 

1. Hia being a friend of yours waa sufficient. 2. Our being 

Americans gave Ufl the freedom of the town on that occasion. 
3. Their being too intimate with the commander of the fort led 



64 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



to the discovery of the plot. 4. Your being a member of the or. . 
der will be of advantage to you. 

As objects of transitive verbs — nouns. 

"I could not avoid expressing my concern for the stranger. " 



could avoid 
[not J 



( expressing 6 




j 



concern 6 

l m yj 

strangers ] 
I the J ~ 



1. I cannot help remarking the resemblance between him and 
our author. 2. They enjoyed witnessing the various displays. 

3. The proprietors favored running the machinery by steam. 

4. Rachel has stopped studying music for the present* 5. I dis- 
like attending public receptions. 

As adverbial modifiers— adverbs* 

"The storm having passed away, they resumed their journey." 



( They 



resumed 



journey 



[ their J 



storm 5 



having passed ) 



I the J 

"The storm having passed, they resumed their journey," is a sentence ; de- 
clarative; simple. They is the subject; resumed is the predicate, and is 
modified by journey, an objective element, and by the participial phrase, the 
storm having passed, an adverbial element. 

Remark.— The participle is sometimes composed of two or more words. 
Having passed, in the diagram above, is an example of this kind. 

1. The factory having closed, the men returned to their homes. 
2. The war being ended, the soldiers were disbanded. 3. The 
weary wanderer* rested, their journey having been completed. 



PARTICIPIAL PHRASES. 



65 



As adjective modifiers — Adjectives. 

"The city baying been taken by storm, was given up to plun- 
der. " 



City 



TtbTJ 



was 



given 



having been taken ) 



by 



to 



plunder) 



storm 



"The city having been taken by storm, was given up to plunder," if a een- 
tsnee ; declarative ; simple. The subject, city, is modified by the participial 
phrase, having been taken by storm, an adjective element. 

1. The burglar, captured in the act of stealing, was punished 
for the crime. 2. That famous old corporation, having been over- 
whelmed with indebtedness, was dissolved. 3. That street, having 
been paved with granite, is now a magnificent thoroughfare. 

"Being but dust, be humble and wise." 



c^ 



R. 1. 



be 



hnmble and wise 



being 



dnst 5 "") 



"G^tj 



"Bein? but dust, be humble and wise," is a sentence ; imperative ; simple ; 
Thou or you understood is the subject ; be lathe copula; humble and wl*e 
are the predicates. The subject is modified by the participial phrase, being 
but dust, an adjective element. (Sec page 27.) 

1. Being innocent of the crime, bo firm and confident. 2. Be- 
ing in moderate circumstances, be industrious and honest. 3. Be- 

l American, you Bhould defend your country. 4. Beinj 
good circum* >e contended and happy. 

ftein irk.— In imperative seuieuoeo the subject is generally ^ranting— 

understood. 



66 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



As independent phrases. 

u Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance." 



( speaking 5 j 

[ properly J 



( There 



is 



T tnin g ) 

l no J I such J 



( chance 



is 



X 



as 2 



In this sentence the participle, speaking, is used independently. 

1. This conduct, viewing it in the most favorable light, reflects 
discredit on his character. 2. Generally speaking, few men at- 
tain worldly greatness. 3. The movements of the enemy, view- 
ing them from the stand-point of a general, were, to say the least, 
graceful. 

Remark.— Such constructions as the participial phrases, viewing it in 
the most favorable light, generally speaking and viewing them from 
the stand-point of a general, are regarded as independent. They do, 
however carry with them a modifying force. 

As objects of prepositions — nouns. 



"I was not aware of his being a physician. 



a 



was 



aware 



of 



f being 



j physician 5 J 



I is the subject; aware is the predicate; was is the copula. The pred" 
icate, aware, is modified by no't, an adverbial element, and by the phrase, 
of his being a physician, an adverbial element; being is modified by his, 
an adjective element ; physician, by a, an adjective. 

1* I had not been informed of his being a member. 2. We have 



PARTICIPIAL PHRASE 67 

not been notified of their being selected. 3. Bis brother was 
fined for driving rapidly over the bridge. 4. For doing bo much 
mischief they were banished from the town. 5. He could not be 
dissuaded from speaking the truth. 

1. ZEROISES. 

To be analyzed: 

l a He Btood leaning on his spade and gazing at the brightness 
in the west. 2. They could not avoid expressing their sympathy 
for the prisoner. 3. Endeavoring to escape, he fell. 4. The men 
were engaged in cutting wood. 5. "Your being a subject of the 

■u of England will be of advantage to you. 6. Being pressed 
onflicting interests, they avoided telling what (that which) 
they knew of the accident. 7. The little boy could not be terri- 
fied into telling what he knew. 8. When they were pressed by 
conflicting interests, they avoided telling what they knew. 9. 
When Elizabeth was queen Bacon was lord chancellor. 10. When 
(during the time during which) we were detained by the enemy 
we discovered their (his) plans. 11. The boys took whatever 
(that which) they found. 12. You may call whoever (him whom) 
you see. 

21. ffOMINATIYE ABSOLUTE. 

The Nominative Absolute Case is the use of 

a noun independent of any governing word. 

When a noun or pronoun is not in any other case, it Is put 
in the Nominative Absolute Case. The several distinct condi- 
tions under which this occurs are: 
1. By amotion; as, Oh t lie folly of sin! 

Your brother, h<> shall be detained. Your 
father, whese La he? And the Prophets, do they Live forev< 
■' ct addn : >"ri< >. your brother calls you. 

4. With - ; as, My being a chUd, was a plea for my ad- 
mission. The sun approaching >w melts away. 

5. With an Industrious student Is to be an 
excellent scholar. 



68 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Rule 5. A noun or pronoun used independently is 
in the nominative absolute ease (and should have the 
nominative form). 

Explanation.— The noun or pronoun which is said to be used independ- 
ently with a participle, is what may be considered the subject of the participle 
or the predicate following a participle from the verb, to be. 

Analyze and correct the following sentences, using this as a model: 

"I had no idea of its being him." 



( I 


had 


idea 6 J 






of 


[_noJ 




\ 




( being 7 j he 5 ) 
I &> J 7. i 



"I had no idea of its being Mm." Him is a pronoun used independently 
with a participle, therefore it is in the nominative absolute case, R. 5, and 
should have the nominative form, he. (See page 51.) 

1. Him being seen, they fled. 2. You did not know of its be- 
ing me. 3. Us having returned, they rejoiced. 4. They had not 
been informed of its being her. 5. Me being present, they soon 
retired. 6. Oh, happy us! who are thus blessed. 7. Him being 
rich, they feared his influence. 8. "Thee too! Brutus, my son," 
cried Caesar. 9. Its being me, had much to do with his decision 
in the matter. 10. Him that formed the eye, can he not see? 11. 
Its being her made no difference. 

Participles and Infinitives, even where used as 
nouns, are modified by adverbial elements, not by- 
adjective elements. 

Exception. — A Participle may be modified by a noun or pro- 
noun in the Possessive case; as "My being a child was a plea 
for my admission/ 9 "I had not been informed of Johrts having 
returned." The nouns and pronouns in such cases are called ad- 
jective elements. (See diagram, page 63.) 



PARTICIPIAL PHRASES. 69 

Remark.— Tn svcfa constructions the nominative and objective forms are 
often improperly used for the possessive. 

Cor- ng sentences, using tin's as a model: 

"The manager has not been informed of him having resigned." 



Manager 



"QhTJ" U2D 



has been y informed ) 



of 



having resigned 



TUT 



Him is a pronoun used to modify the participle, having resigned, there- 
is in the possessh e case, R. 8. and should have the possessive form, his. 
The manager has not been informed of his having resigned. 

Rule 8. A noun or pronoun used to modify a par- 
ticiple is in the possessive case (and should have the 
possessive form). 

1. Did you not hear of me being there? 2. Him being a for- 
eigner was the cause of his expulsion from the town. 3. We 
have heard of Mm going to the falls. 4. I doubted him having 

a soldier. 5. Mr. Ward objected to his son joining the army. 

$. A fair wind is the cause of a vessel sailing. 7. He opposed me 

He had no idea of me being there. 9. The 

was alarmed by tb Hiking. 10. Our boat sinking 

threw us upon the mercy of the waves. 

2. The train leaving the depot before the appointed time 
ran- remain a1 lnnne. 2. I am not afraid of Willie going 
into the water. 3. His father waa alarmed at him doingso. 4. 
There is do necessity of me going home now. 5. They being too 
intimate with the commander of the fort, led to the discovery of 
(he i I had nol been Informed of him being a member. 
7. We being Americans gave us the freedom of the town. 8. You 
being a member of the order will be of advantage to you. 

Questions.— Is a participle ever used a£ partof a verb? \ complete verb 
may I d <>f how many words? What is meant by a noun used Inde- 

mples. in i be <■ n "A triend 

1 what rule for yours? What is a possessive pronoun? (Page 82). 

Participles and infinitives are modified by what "dements? 



70 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



25. SUBJUNCTIVE CLAUSES. 

The Subjunctive Clause is used to express 
a condition, a doubt, a wish, a motive, a supposi- 
tion, or a possibility. This clause represents an 
ideal act or a real act placed under a condition 
of more or less doubt. 

Explanation. — This clause is found in complex sentences? 
and it is joined to the verb of the principal sentence by such 
conjunctions as if, though, unless, except, lest, that, until, pro- 
vided that, whether, etc. These conjunctions are called the 
Signs of the Subjunctive, and many of them may be substituted 
for the word, if, in the following table: 



SUBJUNCTIVE FORMS. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


If I be 


If we be 


If I were 


If we were 


If I write 


If thou be 


If you be 


If thou wert 


If you were 


If thou write 


If he be 


If they be 


If he were 


If they were 


If he write 


INDICATIVE FORMS. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


I am 


We are 


I was 


We were 


I write 


Thou art 


You are 


Thou wast 


You were 


Thou writest 


lie is 


They are 


He was 


They were 


He writes 



Remark.— Nearly all the verbs in the language correspond in form, so 
far as termination is concerned, to the verb, write: He writes; they write; 
if he write. He loves; they love; if he love. He comes; they come; it he come. 

Remark.— The Subjunctive form of the verb is used in subjunctive 
clauses. The Indicative form is used in declarative, and interrogative sen- 
tences. 

Punctuation. — Transposed and parenthetical words, phrases, and 
clauses are usually set off by commas. 



SU1UI \ni\ i: CLAUSES. 7 J 

1 \ l RCI SES. 

To be analyzed: 

1. If this be true, all will end well. 1. Had I time, I would 
aid you. 3. If I had time, 1 would aid you. 4. Here I a king, 
I would be generous. 5. If I were a king, I would be generous. 
G. Wert he honest, he would pay me. 7. Had I been there, I 
should have seen him. 8. If he study, he will exeel. 9. Were 
I not Alexander, I would \>q Diogenes. 10. The commander 
suggested that the town be taken by storm. 11, The king is 
anxious that the army be developed and strengthened. 12. Go 
with the understanding that one hundred men be admitted with 
you. 13. I should not go if I were you. 14. Though he leave 
me alone, I shall not be afraid. 15. Remain until he come. 

2. Withdraw thy foot from thy neighbor's house, lest he weary 
of thee. 2. Though he drive me from his door, yet I will not de- 

him. 3. Unless he return, he will lose a fine opportunity. 
4. If I were you, I would not go. 5. Unless you go, I will not 
Btay. G. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 7. If it be 
proper, do it. S. If he promise, he will reform. 9. If I were now 
:i< strong as I was a year ago, I would begin the work at once. 
10. If he but touch the hills, they will smoke. 11. Would that I 
were he. 12. I wish that he wore you. 13. It is our desire thai 
he go without further dolay. 14. Oh that he were here! 15. Pro- 
vided thai he come in time, 1 will remain. 10. You may stay dur- 
ing the summer, whether I be there or not. 

Remark. — Like many other things in the Bcience of language, a knowL 
edge of the subjuncth e clause and the verb in the subjunctive mode musl be 
acquired from experience In tin.' anal} Bis of sentences containing such con 
structions, no1 by memorizing definitions and explanation* . 

Rule 17. In Subjunctive Clauses the plural forxw 

of the verb is generally used, even with singular 
subjects. 

EXER4 i - i - . 

To bt correcti 

1. If thlfi is brae, all will end well. 2. Was I a Idng, I would 
■ is. :;. Though b me from hia door, yel will I 

clin^ to him. 4. I wish 1 was In power, I would teach him a 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

son. 5. If it is proper, do so. 6. If he promises he will reform. 
7. I wish I was a scholar. 8. Unless he returns, he will lose a fine 
opportunity. 9. Unless the miller grinds the corn, we will have 
no meal. 10. Make peace with him lest he destroys thee. 11. It 
is decreed that he is banished from his native land. 12. Justice 
demands that he dies for the crime. 13. It is my desire that he 
goes home to-day. 14. The king commanded that the town should 
be taken by storm. 

26. CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

Nouns are divided into two principal classes : Com- 
mon, Proper. 

A common noun is a general or class name. 

Examples. — Door, bird, house, gold, water, paper, pencil. 

A collective noun is a common noun denoting a collection of 
individuals considered as forming one whole or body. 

Examples. — Army, committee, assembly, swarm, jury, club, company. 

Explanation.— When a collective noun denotes the collection as one 
body, which is generally the case, the verb which follows it must be singular; 
as, "The company was large.'* Here we do not mean that the persons com- 
posing the company were large. 

A proper noun is a special or individual name. 

Examples. — Julian, Bismarck, Andrew Jackson, Boston, Canada. 
Capitals. — All proper nouns should begin with capitals. 

27. PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 

Gender is a distinction of nouns and pronouns 
with regard to sex. 

The Masculine gender denotes males. 

Examples.— Afaw, father, prince, governor, lad, master, king, emperor. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 73 

The Feminine gender denotes females. 

Examples. — Woman, mother, princess, governess, lass, mistress, queen. 

The Common gender denotes cither males or fcj- 
males. 

l \ imples. — Children, parent, bird, cousin, teacher, assistant. 

The Neuter gender denotes neither males nor fe- 
males. 

Examples.— City, knife, tree, house, smartness, stupidity, frost, winter* 

Person is that property of noun or pronoun which distin- 
guishes the speaker, the person spoken to, and the person or ob- 
ject spoken of. 

The First person denotes the speaker. 

Examples.—"/, Henry, was with him." "Give it to me, your cousin.' * 

The Second person denotes the person spoken to. 

Examples.—" William, T have a letter tor you." 

Punctuation, — N spoken to should be separated 

from the r< st of ti ■ ma. 

The Third person denotes the person or object 
8poh a <>J\ 

Examples*— J \ the boy a book and tome pens. 

Number is the property of the noun which shows whether one 

ore than o of. 

The Singular Number is used when only one ob- 
ject i- meant : as, boy, man, hat, rivi r. 

The Plural Number is used when two, Si w red or 
nj objects are meant; as, nn n, hats, rivers* 



74 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Suggestion. — Write on the blackboard the following outline and use it as 
an order of parsing nouns. By referring to the definitions the pupils will 
learn the meaning of the terms used. 

ORDER OF PARSING THE NOUN. 



NOUN. 


CLASS. 


GENDER. 


PERSON. 


NUMBER. 


CASE, 


R. 




Common 
Proper 


Masculine 
Feminine 
Neuter. 
Common 


First 

Second 

Third 


Singular 
Plural 


Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 

♦ 



MODELS FOR PARSING. 

1. "William, Henry's lesson is prepared." 

William ... is a noun; proper; masculine; second;, singular; 
nominative absolute case, it is the name of a per- 
son addressed. Rule 5. 

Henry's ... is a noun; proper; masculine gender; third person; 
singular number; possessive case, it denotes posses- 
sion, and modifies lesson* Rule 3. 

2. The Greeks took Troy by stratagem. ' 

Greeks .... noun; proper; masculine; third; plural; subject of 
the verb, took, therefore, nominative case. Rule 1. 

Troy noun; proper; neuter-, third; singular; object of the 

verb, took; objective. Rule 6. 

Stratagem . . noun; common; neuter; third', singular; object of the 
preposition, by; objective. Rule 7. 

3. Victor Hugo, the famous French author, is dead. 

Victor Hugo . noun; proper; masculine; third; singular; subject of 
verb, is; nominative. Rule 1. 

Author .... : noun; common; masculine; third; singular; in appo- 
sition with Yietor Hugo; nominative. Rule 4. 



letters :;> 

fit-. $io-i^L^ f U(o-- f pi^p^t. 8, /SSJ. 

HseAAs. %Ms/lAJU C^ZZ ZsV^Z 20-Vls UsO-Us C/tWt' bsU^O-'U^ 

///</>'/ if '/ €6 /fffr// < ■' /•/ ^vr/y /rtf//. 

f / / 

(/ A- // /f JJ/f 'r /''J fJ//'/f*)/-l tJS 

/, <</, 

///. 0. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Columbus crossed the Atlantic with ninety men. 

Columbus . . noun; proper; masculine; third; singular; subject of 
the verb, crossed; nominative. Rnle 1. 

Atlantic . . . noun; proper; neuter; third; singular; object of the 
verb, crossed; objective. Rule 6. 

Men noun; common; masculine; third; plural; object of 

the preposition, with; objective. Rule 7. 

Suggestion.— The words on page 77 shouM be treated as a very important 
lesson in spelling. Both the singular and the plural forms together with the 
meaning of the words should be thoroughly learned before doing the work on 
this page. 

Parse the nouns and correct the verbs in the following sentences: 

1. The news of fearful disasters have arrived. 2. The scissors 
is on the table. 3. The first series of entertainments are over. 
4. Ashes was scattered among the plants. 5. The odds offered 
seem great. 6. The assets of the house at the time of the failure 
were trifling. 7. No tidings of the missing steamer has yet been 
received. 8. Ethics is the science of human duty. 9. Riches take 
wings. 10. Politics is his trade. 

2. The bellows belongs to the smith. 2. His clothes hangs 
loosely about him. 3. Billiards occupy too much of his attention. 
4. His means as well as his opportunities appear to be taking 
flight. 5. Mathematics are his fort. 6. The axis passes through 
the centre. 7. The focus of an ellipse corresponds to the centre 
of a circle. 8. The data given was not correct. 9. The radius of 
the circle measures several feet. 10. The banditti destroy all 
communication between the two towns. 

1. Nouns whose last sound will not unite with the sound rep- 
resented by s, form their plurals by adding es to the singular; as, 
box, boxes; witness, witnesses. 

2. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y intotf, 
and add es; as, glory, glories; mercy, mercies. 

3« Most nouns ending in /change /to v, and addes; those end- 
ing in/e change /to v, and add s; as, wife, wives. 

4. When compound nouns are formed by uniting a noun and an 
adjective, or an adjective phrase, into one word, the noun in the word 
is pluralized; as, brothers-in-law, cowrte-martiai, wagon- load^ 
ox-carte. 



APPENDIX. 



77 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 
Most nouns form their plural by adding s to the singular; 
i9»bojf, boys; tree, trees; hat, hats. 

Some nouns form their plural variously; as church, 
churches; box, boxes; inch, inches; lash, lashes; genius, 
geniuses; fox, foxos; hero, heroes; glory, glories; mercy, 
mercies; fly, flies; valley, valleys; beef, beeves; wife, wives; 
wolf, wolves; knife, knives; calf, calves; half, halves; thief, 
thieves; tooth, teeth; ox, oxen; brother-in-law, brothers-in- 
law; court-martial, courts- martial; knight -templar, knights- 
templars;ignis-fatuus, ignes-fatui. 

Many foreign words retain their original plural : 



Alumnus 


alumni 


Emphasis 


emphases 


Amanuensis 


amanuenses 


Focus 


foci 


Analysis 


analyses 


Genus 


genera 


Antithesis 


antitheses 


Hypothesis 


hypotheses 


Axis 


axes 


Metamorphosis 


metamorphoses 


Basis 


bases 


Apex 


apices 


Beau 


beaux 


Appendix 


appendices 


Crisis 


crises 


Bandit 


banditti 


Datum 


data 


Gymnasium 


gymnasia 


Parenthesis 


parentheses 


Medium 


media 


Phenomenon 


phenomena 


Memorandum 


memoranda 


Radius 


radii 


Momentum 


momenta 



Some nouns, the names of things consisting of parts^ or 
forming a pair, are always plural inform, and, therefore, 
should be followed by verbs in the plural; Ride 13: 

Manners, shears, bellows, tongs, scissors, pincers, billiards, 
snuffers, ashes, clothes, riches, vespers, goods, tidings, <\i 
vitals, drugs, mumps, measles, annals, assets, compasses, 
hysterics. 

me other nouns are always plural in form., but generally 
darinsigni , and should be followed by verb 

] >ir ; 
Pains, ethics, politics, means, series, news, odds, amends^ 
physics, optics, mathematics. 



78 COMPOSITION. 

GENDER OF NOUNS. 

TJie gender of nouns is distinguished in three ways : 

1. By a change of form; as, count, countess; tiger, tigress; 
hero, heroine. 

2. By the use of different words; as, boy, girl; man, woman; 
father, mother. 

3. By prefixing or affixing another word; as, Mr. Hall, Mrs. 
Hall; step-son, step -daughter; man-servant, maid-servant. 

Suggestion.— The following nouns may be arranged under the three dif- 
ferent heads just given. The lists of words on these pages may be 
treated as a special spelling lesson in which the meaning of the words 
should be taught. 

Duke, duchess; miss, master; empress, emperor; marquis, 
marchioness; king, queen; lad, lass; sir, madam; papa, 
mamma; wizard, witch; groom, bride; lady, gentleman; Paul, 
Pauline; baron, baroness; lord, lady; widow, widower; hart, 
roe; Joseph, Josephine; he -bear, she-bear; doctor, doctress; 
belle, beaux; czar, czarina; uncle, aunt; youth, maiden; 
nephew, niece; sultan, sultana; arch-duke, arch-duchess; 
male-child, female-child; testator, testatrix; monk, nun. 

COMPOSITIONS. 

Before undertaking to write a composition oti any subject 
the teacher or pupil should ask questions suggested by the 
object, and construct an outline like the following on peaches: 

Topical Outline. 

What they are. 
Where they grow. 

f Size. 
General appearance. } Shape. 
[ Color, 
( Skin. 
Parts. < Pulp. 
I Seed. 
^ Use and preparation. 



Peaches. 



COMPOSITION. 79 

Write outlines of the following subjects and afterwards 
write compositions on them: Apples, plums, cherries, water- 
melons, tomatoes, etc. 

Having written several compositions on subjects as familiar 
as the preceding, more difficult ones may be selected. The 
sources of the necessary information should be suggested or 
supplied by the teacher. A chapter on the subject may be 
read to the pupils, then, after a brief discussion of it by the 
entire class, the outline may be prepared and the composition 
written. Sturges' Manual of School Exercises furnishes inter- 
esting information for one hundred compositions. 

THE OSTRICH. 

Questions.— What is it? Found in what countries? In what 
kind of a climate does it flourish? As compared with the birds 
of this country, what can you say of it? What do you know of 
ostrich farming? Of what use is it? Can you give a brief 
sketch of the first one you saw, and the circumstances attend- 
ing the occasion? 

Subjects Suggested. — The condor, eagle, goose, tiger, ele- 
phant, hyena, whale, herring, alligator, turtle, lobster, etc. 

Topical Outline, 

f Birth and parentage. 
Early education. 

C French and Indian war. 
Services. < Revolutionary war. 

( As President. 
Character and rank as a General. 
Death. 
Interesting incidents in life. 

/.— Thomas Jefferson, Aaron Bnrr, Sir Wil- 
liam Pitt, Abraham Lincoln, William the Conqueror, Horace 
Greeley, Henry W. Longfellow, Christopher Columbus, etc. 



George Washington. 



80 



COMPOSITION. 



MEXICAN WAR. 

Information from United States History. 

Questions. — To what three generals was the conduct of the war 
entrusted on the part of the United States government ? Where 
was the first battle fought. Give an account of Gen. Taylor's 
operations in Texas at Palo Alto and at Rasaca de la Palma, In 
Mexico at Monterey and Buena Vista. 

Give an account of Gen. Kearney's exploits in New Mexico and 
California. 

With how many soldiers did Gen. Scott set out for the City of 
Mexico ? Describe the attack upon and capture of Vera Cruz and 
Cerro Gordo. How long and for what purpose did the army rest 
at Puebla ? Describe the march upon the Capital City, the attack 
upon Contreras, Churubusco, Chapultepec arid the final entry of 
the army into the City of Mexico. [Limit to one page of foolscap.] 

fFort Brown. 
' Texas. 



Mexican War. 



' Gen. Taylor. 



Gen. Kearney. 



Mexico. 



< Palo Alto. 

I Rasaca de la Palma. 

( Monterey. 
( Buena Vista. 



f New Mexico. 
I California. 



Gen. Scott. 



'Vera Cruz. 
Cerro Gordo. 
Puebla. 

f Contreras. 
.Mexico. ] Churubusco. 

I Chapultepec. 
Subjects Suggested. — King George's War, French and Indian 
War, King Philip's War, Burgoyne's Invasion and Capture at Sar- 
atoga, Siege and Capture of Cornwallis at Yorktown, Battle of 
New Orleans, Perry's Victory. 

Suggestion.— After a lesson has been prepared in the School Reader a com- 
position may be written which will contain a brief sketch of the incidents 
related. 



LETTERS. 81 

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foeevi/vvvti/ -and q$ am Vaia-wi 1/W j/t-avtAe6r 
©eaq/i/Ki/tj, 



a/m^ ty&vitl&wv&vb 



tf^e Ioam>V oX curb wi/taVU/i/©u> } <$ 



SUPERSCRIPTION, 






82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

28. PROPERTY OF PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun is a part of speech which is used to 
represent a noun. 

Pronouns are divided into four classes: Personal, 
Kelative, Interrogative and Possessive. (See page 13.) 

Personal Pronouns show by their form whether 
they are of the first, second or third person. (See 
page 16.) 

A Relative Pronoun is used to represent a pre- 
ceding word, or phrase, called its antecedent, to 
which it joins a modifying clause. 

Remark,— The Simple Relatives are icho, which is used to represent 
persons; which and what, to represent things; that, to represent both persons 
and things; and as, to take the place of ivho, which, or that, after such, many 
and same. 

Interrogative Pronouns are relative pronouns 
which are used in asking questions. 

Remark.— The antecedent of the interrogative pronoun is found in the 
answer to the question. The interrogatives are who? which.? what? 

Possessive Pronouns represent both the pos- 
sessor and the thing possessed. 

Remark.— The possessive pronouns retain the same form in the nomina- 
tiye and objective cases. They are mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours and 
theirs. 

Compound Personal Pronouns retain the 
same form in the nominative and objective cases and 
are not used in the possessive. 

Remark.— They are myself, thyself or yourself, himself, herself, it- 
self with the plural forms, ourselves, yourselves and themselves. 

The Compound Relative Pronouns are, who- 



PROPERTIES OF PRONOUNS. 



83 



ever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever and 
whatsoevi r. 



Analyze the following sentences: 

"This is the boy whoso book you found.*' 



( This 



is 13. 



boy U. 2. 



) 



c 



found 11. 13. 



book i?. £ 



( whose B. 3. ) 



D 



1. The gentleman, ^/tose aid was solicited, has left town. 



2. A 
man. wfo Reveres,' will be honored. 3. The tempest, w>/Wcft was 
raging, drove them to the nearest shelter. 4. Paul, who was an 
apostle, visited Rome. 5. Solomon, who built the temple in Jeru- 
salem, was the wisest of kings. 6. The house in which he lived 
has passed into other hands. 7. The time in which Priam, king 
of Troy, lived, is uncertain. S. You may do what (that which) 
you please. 

Remark—The words which, what, and that are used as adjectives as well 
as relatives and interrogative*. 

1. Which book did vou take? What lesson did the teacher as- 
rign the class yesterday? 3. That lesson is easily prepared. 
4. Which boy is the best scholar of thethree? 5. What prof ession 
did he chooser 



"Take whatever he gave you/' 
( [Vou] 



take /.'. 13. 



that 



/;. '/. ) 



( whatever ) 



c 



be 



gave 



which 



ich B. 6. J 



VOU 



It. 7. ) 



1. Whoever tries will succeed. 2. Call whoever you want. 



84 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



3. Whatever is, is right. 4. That is right which is. 5. Whatso- 
ever ye shall ask in my name that will I do. 6. Whoso keepeth 
the law is a wise son. 7. We should avoid doing whatever injures 
others. 

Remark.— A compound relative pronoun is generally equivalent to two 
words— a relative and its antecedent. In the analysis, the two words 
should be used instead of the compound relative. 

ORDER OF PARSING THE PRONOUJST. 



Pron. 


Class. 


Gender. 


Person. 


Number. 


K 




Case. 


II 




personal 


Masculine 


First 


Singular 


Nominat. 




Relative 


Feminine 


Second 


Plural 


9 




Possessive 


3 




Interrogative 


Common 


Third 








Objective 






Possessive 


Neuter 















Eule 9.— Pronouns must agree with their antece- 
dents in person, gender, and number, 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

1. "That book is hers." 

first method: 

Hers . . is a pronoun; possessive; neuter gender; third person; sing- 
ular number (to agree with its antecedent), Rule 9; 
nominative case. Rule 2. 



SECOND METHOD: 

Hers 



Who 



=her book. Her, pronoun; personal; feminine; third; sing- 
ular (to agree with its antecedent, the name of the per- 
son referred to), Rule 9; possessive. Rule 3. 

2. "Who is taller than he V 

pronoun; interrogative; common; third; singular (to agree 
with some name understood), Rule 9; (the subject of 
a sentence, therefore in the) nominative case. Rule 1. 



PROPERTIES OF PRONOUNS. 85 

He .... pronoun; personal; masculine; third; singular (to agree 
with Us antecedent, the name of him referred to), Rule 
9; (subject of the verb, is, understood, therefore) nom- 
inative, Rule 1. 

3. "The work is your oton." 
FIRST METHOD : 

Your own is a pronoun; possessive; its antecedent is work; neuter 
xder; third person; singular number; nominative case. 
Rule 2. 

SECOND METHOD: 

tour own is a pronoun; possessive; it is equivalent to your work. 
Parse your as a personal pronoun in the possessive case, 
Rule 3; work as a noun used as the predicate. Rule 2. 

4-. " Whatever purifies, sanctifies/' 

whatever is a pronoun; relative; compound; it is equivalent to that 
which. Parse that and which — that being the subject 
of sanctifies; which, of purifies. 

5. "As many as came were baptized." 

As .... is a pronoun; relative; its antecedent is many; simple; 
common gender; third person; plural number; Rule 9; 
nominative case; it is used as the subject of the subor- 
dinate proposition, as came, i. e., who came. Rule 1. 
E X B BC IS ES« 

Parse the nouns and pronouns: 

1. Henry, come to me. 2. This hat is yours. 3. My hat, 

where is it? 1. George, that knife is mine. 5. This is yours, 

Henry. G. Oh. the ghost of my f.ither! 7. Drugs and Fancy Ar- 

3, Goodness, what ;i sightl 9. The captain, what can T 

say to him? 10. He, himself, will do it. 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Brother, the honor is yours, (it is) not mine. 2. That ball, 
it is his. 3. He is older than I (am), but I am older than she 
(is). 4. They, themselves, said so. 5. It is yours, not mine. 
6. It is your book, it is not my book. 7. My brother and I will 
go when he returns. 8. We will go at the time at which he re- 
turns. 9. The officer arrived while George was present. 10. The 
officer arrived at the time at which George was present. 

3. The vessel sank as it entered the harbor. 2. The vessel 
sank at the time at which it entered the harbor. 3. He acted as 
he was directed. 4. She is as amiable as her sister. 5. She is ami- 
able in the same degree in which her sister is amiable. 6. She 
looks as tall as he. 7. The boy as well as the girl was there. 
8. He looks as if he could do the work. 9. He was not only a 
good scholar, but also a fine musician. 10. He was a good scholar 
and fine musician. 

EXERCISES. 

To be corrected: 

1. It was Yirgil, him who wrote the iEneid. 2. It was bought 
of Mr. Brown, he who keeps the book store. 3. We have visited 
our friends, they who live in the city. 4. Mary, Queen of Scots, 
her that was beheaded, was pious. 5. I speak of Cromwell, he 
who beheaded Charles. 

R em ark.— When the gender of a pronoun referring to a person is not 
known, the masculine form should be used. 

2. Every person should love their friends, and do good to them. 
2. No person should boast of themselves. 3. The news has ar- 
rived and they are unfavorable. 4. Rebecca took goodly raiment 
and gave them to Jacob. 5. Let every pupil obey their teacher. 
G. The Christian who knows their duty, loves their God. 7. No 
person can with propriety commend themselves. 8. Every one 
must judge of their own feelings. 9. The nation was once pow- 
erful, but now they are feeble. 10. The court was unanimous in 
their decision. 11. The assembly was so dense that we could 
scarcely see through them. 



PROPERTIES OF ADJECTIVES. 87 

29. ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective is a word used to describe or define 
a noun. 

1. A Descriptive Adjective limits or describes 
a noun by denoting some quality belonging to it. 

Remark.— Many descriptive adjectives admit of comparison. (Page 35.) 

1. A Definitive Adjective limits or defines the 
application of a noun without expressing any of its 
qualities. (Page 10.) 

1. Pronominal Adjectives are definitives, 

most of which may, without an article prefixed, repre- 
sent a noun understood. 

Examples. — Each, every, either, neither, this, that, these, those, former, 
latter, same, each other, one another, some, such, all, none, any, whole, one. 

Numeral Adjectives are definitives used in 
counting, in numbering and in multiplying. 

Examples. — One, two, six, first, sixth, once, twice, tenfold, triple. 

ORDER OF 'PARSING. 

1. An adjective, and why? 

2. Descriptive or Definitive, and why? 

3. Compare it, if it admits of comparison. 

4. Degree of comparison, and why? 

5. What does it describe or define? 

6. Rule. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

1. "Every diligent boy will be rewarded." 

Every .... is an adjective; definitive; distributive pronominal, and 
defines boy. Rule 12. 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Diligent ... is an adjective; descriptive; compared, diligent, more 
diligent, most diligent ; positive degree, and describes 
boy. Kule 12. 

2. "The first painting is an American mountain scene." 

The is an adjective; definitive, and defines painting. 

Rule 12. 

First is an adjective; definitive; numeral, and belongs to 

painting. Rule 12. 

American . . is an adjective; descriptive, and describes painting. 
Rule 12. 

3. u The weather is pleasant ." 

Pleasant . . is an adjective; descriptive; compared, pleasant, more 
pleasant, most pleasant; positive degree, and de- 
scribes weather. Rule 23. 

4. '•'-Many a flower is born to blush unseen." 

Many a ... is an adjective; definitive; indefinite pronominal, and 
defines flower. Rule 12. 

Suggestion.— Parse the adjectives in the exercises on page 36. Selections 
may be made in any part of the work. 



30. VERBS. 

The Verb is that part of speech which is used to 
say or to tell something about some person or thing. 

Verbs, with reference to use, are divided into three 
general classes : Transitive, Intransitive, and 
Copulative. (See page 8.) 

Yerbs, with reference to form, are classed as Regular and Ir- 
regular. 



PROPERTIES OF THE VERB. 89 

A Regular Verb Is one whose past tense and perfect participle 
end in ed. 

Examples.-! cry, I cried, T have cried; I depart, I departed, I have 
departed; l love, I loved, I have loved. 

An Irregular Verb is one whose past tense and perfeel parti- 
ciple do not end in ed. 

Examples. — I £<>, I went, 1 have gone; I see, I saw, I have seen; I write, 
I wrote, I have written. 

Auxiliary Verbs are used in the conjugation of 
other verbs to make some modification of mode, 
tense, number or person. 

Examples.-/)*), be, have, may, can, must, shall, will, did, had, should, 
might, canst, couldst. 

Remark.— In many instances several auxiliaries unite with the principal 
verb to form one complete verb. 



31. PROPERTIES OF THE VERB. 

Transitive Verbs have Voice : an Active and a 
Passive Voice. 

The Active Voice represents the subject as acting. 

Examples.— "Williams sair Henry." "The owl caught the mouse." 
"Georue prepared the work." 

The Passive Voice represents the subject as being acted upon. 

Examples. -"Henry wat seen by William." "The mouse was caught by 
the owl." "The work was prepared by George.' 4 

To the T«arher.- The use of the term, voire, in the parsing is not recom> 
■ i . it is betU r to >■ parole the parts— the copula and the participle -and to 

>■>/ itself. - 21.) The rLoss should be well drilled in changing 

to the other. 

3Iode is the manner in which the action, being, or 
state is expressed. 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Indicative Mode asserts a thing as a fact; as, u The boy 
writes.'* 1 

Remark.— The Indicative Mode is used in asking questions also; as, 
"Does the boy twite?" 

The Subjunctive Moae asserts a thing as doubtful. It is used 
only in subjunctive clauses. 

The Potential Mode asserts the duty, necessity,, power, liberty, 
or liability of acting or being; as, "They must go." 

Remark.— The signs of the Potential Mode— the auxiliaries used— are, 
may, can, must, might, could, would and should. 

The Imperative Mode is used in commanding, exhorting, entreat- 
ing or permitting ; as, "Go, and come no more;" "Lead us not into 
temptation." 

The Infinitive Mode is that form of the verb which is used as a 
noun, adjective, or adverb; as, "To play is pleasant;" "Children 
love to play " 

Tense is that property of the verb which indicates 
the time of an action or an event. 

The Present Tense denotes present time; as, "He sleeps;" "He 
is writing." 

The Present Perfect Tense represents an action or event as 
completed at the present time; as, "I have written my letter;" 
"She has learned her lesson." 

Remark.— This tense may be known by the auxiliaries, have and had. 

The Past Tense expresses what took place in time passed : as, 
'I wrote my letter;" "He learned his lesson." 

The Past Perfect Tense expresses an action as completed in 
time passed. "He had finished his task before I arrived." 

Remark.— The auxiliary, had, is used in this tense. 

The Future Tense expresses what will take place in future 
time; as, "We shall see you again soon." 



PARSING OF THE VERB. 



91 



Remark.— The auxiliaries, shall and Ufitt, are u>ed in this tense. 

The Future Perfect Tense represents an action as completed 
at or before a certain future time; as, u We shall haw finished our 
work by the time you arrive." 

The Person and Number of verbs are their modifications 
(changes in termination) to mark their agreement with their sub- 
jects; as, "J love:" -thou Loves*;" tl he loves;" 4 *they love." 

Rule 13. A verb must agree with its subject in 

number and person. 

ORDER OF PARSING THE VERB. 



VERB 


FORM. 


CLASS. 


MODE. 


1 

TENSE. 


PERS'N 


NUMBER. 


II. 


Regular 


Transitive 


Indicative 


Present 


First 


Singular 


13 




Irreg. 


Intransitive 


Subjunctive 


P. Perfect 


Sec'd 


Plural 


13 






Copulative 


Potential 

Imperative 

Infinitive 


Past 
P. Perfect 
Future 


Third 














F. Perfect 







MODELS FOR PARSING. 

1. u IIe should have ansioered my letter/' 

Should have answered ia a verb; regular; transitive; potential mode; 
past perfect tense; third person, singular number. 
Rule 13. 

2. "Liberty is sweet." 

I 8 is a verb; irregular; copulative; indicative mode; pres- 

: third person, singular number, to agree with 
Its Bubject, liberty. Rule 13. 

3. "Mr. Walker was considered wealthy." 
Was considered, verb; regular; copulative; indicative; past; third; 

lingular* Rule 13. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. "That carpenter did build our house." 

Did build, . . verb; regular; transitive; indicative; past? third, sing- 
ular. Rule 13. 

5. u Bring me a glass of water." 

Bring .... is a verb; irregular; transitive; imperative mode; pres- 
ent tense; second person, singular number, to agree 
with its subject, thou, understood. Rule 13. 

6. "You should have answered my letter. " 

Should have answered, v>erb; regular; transitive; potential; past 
perfect; second; plural. Rule 13. 

7. "If this be true, all will end well." 

Be verb; irregular; copulative; subjunctive; present. R. 17. 

8. "The storm has destroyed the crops." 

Has destroyed, verb; regular; transitive; indicative; present perfect; 
third, singular. Rule 13. 

9. The crops have been destroyed by the storm. 

Have been, . verb: irregular; copulative-, indicative; present perfect; 
third, plural. Rule 13. 

10. "The watchman ought to have notified the police." 

Ought to have notified, verb; regular; transitive; potential; past per- 
fect; third, singular. Rule 13. 

11. "The police ought to have been notified by the watchman." 

Ought to have been, verb; irregular; copulative; potential; past per- 
fect; thirdi plural. Rule 13. 



rARSIXG OF THE VERB. 



93 



EX BBC! 8 E B. 

Parte the nouns, pronouns and verbs, and correct the errors. 

1. They waa discontented. 2. Thou can assist me if thou will. 
3. You was there. 4. There was mountains where 1 spent the 
summer. ">. Them's my Bentiments. 6. William and John was 
walking together. 7. Circumstances alters cases. S. If I was 

you. 1 would not go. 9. The derivation of these words are uncer- 
tain. 10. The ignes-fatui was a terror to our new guide. 11. This 

heart of mine will break. (Page 77.) 

2. Each of the workmen have done their share. 2. Every one 
of the drivers walk home. 3. Xot one of the books are left on the 
desk. 4. Either of the pens are good enough for me. 5. Such 
phenomena is seldom observed. 6. The alumni meets this even- 
ing. 7. Politics are going to ruin him. 8. Mumps are contagious. 
9. The memoranda is lost. 10. His hypotheses leads to error. 

3. He dare not do it. 2. She need not do it. 3. The scissors 
is broken. 4. Her pulse are very quick. 5. The Pleasures of 
Hope are a fine poem. 6. The fleet were seen off the cape. 
7. The committee were asked to report. S. The legislature have 
adjourned. 9. Polities are his trade. 10. The news are con- 
firmed. 11. Sing to the Lord, all ye saints of his. 

"The little boy could not be terrified into telling what he 
knew." 



boy 


could be R. 13. -j- terrified R. 23. \ 




(The) (! 


(not 7?. JS.) 


into 










( telling 


that II. G. \ 








( he 


knew 


which J 



In this sentence the preposition, into, has for Its object tin 
clause, telling what lie knew. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Write a paragraph on the blackboard similar to the one below; 
then erase the words in italics. Let the lessons on irregular verbs 
be so prepared that when any one of the three forms is named the 
pupils may be able to read the paragraph supplying the correct 
forms to fill the blanks. 

I ivrite, I wrote, I have written, he has written, they have written; 
it is written, it should have been written, etc., etc. 



PRESENT. 

/see, 
/bear, 
/ blow, 
i" break, 
They choose, 
They draw, 
lie forsakes, 
He gives, 

The different 
have, has and 

cipial form of 
tense forms. 



PAST. 

/saw, 
I bore, 
I blew, 
/ broke, 
They chose, 
They drew, 
He forsook, 
He gave, 



PERFECT PARTICIP. 

I have seen. 
/ have borne. 
I have blown. 
I have broken. 
They have chosen. 
They have drawn. 
He has forsaken. 
He has given. 



forms of the verb, to be, as well as 
had, should be followed by the parti- 
the verb, — not by the present or past 



Correct the following sentences, using these models: 
"We have saw him before." 

I see, I saw, I have seen. Have should be followed by the participial 
orm of the verb, only, therefore the sentence should be, We have seen him 
oefore. 

"George done it." 

I do, I did, I have done. An action in past time is expressed, therefore 
the past tense form of the verb should be used, and the sentence should be, 
George did it. 

1. They had bore it long enough. 2. The tree was blew down 
by the wind. 3. My pencil is broke in two. 4. He has chose this 
boy for the place. 5. George has not drew the prize as was re- 
ported. 6. They had drank too much. 7. The birds were all 
drove away by the hawk. 8. The wigwam had been forsook by the 
wild hunter, 9, The land was all gave away by the government. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



95 



PRESENT. 

Hi goes, 

He knows, 
J iv lie, 
Wi load, 
W( ride, 
jr» ring, 
77<< ;/ drive, 
Z%< y drink, 
/lie, 
/lay, 
fsit, 
/set, 
/£ runs, 
7; Bl lakes, 
It shows, 
7/, speaks, 
/spring, 
/strive, 
7 swim, 
/take, 



PAST, 

//< wont. 
Hi knew, 
We lay. 
We loaded, 
We rode, 
W( rang, 
27^'// drove, 
They drank, 
/lay, 
/ laid, 
/sat, 
/ set, 
/£ ran, 
It shook, 
It showed, 
It spoke, 
/sprang, 
/strove, 
/swam, 
/took, 



PERFECT PARTICIP 

He has gone. 
He has known. 

We have, lain. 
We have laden. 
We have ridden. 
We have rung. 
They have driven. 
They have drunk. 
I have lain. 
I have laid. 
/ have sat. 
I have set. 
It has run. 
/i ftas shaken. 
It has shown. 
It has spoke u. 
I have sprung. 
/ have striven. 
I have swum. 
I have taken. 



1. The children had went to school before Walter arrived. 2. 
We have kneio that for a long time. 3. It has lay on the grass 
under the sun all day. 4. That car is loaded with salt. 5. The 
boy has rode that pony all over the prairie. G. The bell was rang 
some time ago. 7. They must have ran the race before we ar- 
rived. S. I have saw such things many a time. 9. The houses 
were shook by the storm. 

2. The apartments should have been shoioed to us. 2. Those 
words w< by somebody who was present at the time. 3. 
The fox had sprang the trap. -1. She has strove hard to win the 
victory. 5. The boys have swam across the pond. 6. George has 

: my pencil. 7. The children have tore my book. 8. The boys 

had thn ,r their books on theground. '.). My book i- wrote through. 

10. I seen him yesterday. 11. They done it themselves. 12. 

•ge and John run a race this morning. 13. The squirrel swum 

>sa the river. 11. They rung the hell. 15. William win the 
las! race. 



HO ik. -The Irregular verba may i><; learned in the becoud and third grades 
before the study of grammar is commenced. 



96 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 







PERFECT 






PERFECT 


PRESENT 


PAST. 


PARTICIP. 


PRESENT 


PAST. 


PARTICIP. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Sink, 


sank, 


sunk. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beaten. 


Sing, 


sang, 


sung. 


Catch, 


caught, 


caught. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Speak, 


spoke, 


spoken. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Mistake, 


mistook, 


mistaken. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Forget, 


forgot, 


forgotten. 


Eat, 


ate, 


eaten, 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Fling, 


flung 


flung. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 


Shrink, 


shrank, 


shrunk. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Beseech, 


besought, besought. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 



1. Have the parcels came yet? 2. Father has drove from Belle- 
ville. 3. The boys have blew out the light. 4. They have arose 
early this morning. 5. My sister begun about an hour ago. 6. Is 
your brother's arm broke? 7. James has not broke the pointer. 
8. You have drunk too much of it. 9. I have chose my seat. 10. 
Have you drew your wages?. 

2. The horse has drank enough. 2. Disputes have frequently 
arose on that subject. 3. They have just arose from the table. 4. 
The insect crept up the wall. 5. He always dinged to his own 
opinion. 6. I done three examples. 7. They have began it again. 
8. I have came to see you. 9. Mother come home yesterday. 10. 
He done it himself. 

3. The water I drunk there was good. 2. The pupils have did their 
work well. 3. He drawed this from the village. 4. I have drank 
three cups. 5. You have broke your promise. 6. They have did 
their work very well. 7. I have knew him for a year. 8. My em- 
ployer give me my wages yesterday. 9. The plant has grew sis. 
inches. 10. The water in froze. 



IRREGl LAK VERBS. ( J7 

4. The poor old man was forsook by everyone. 2. lie /•>,■■ 
me at once. 3. The dinner was all eat, 4. I eat a hearty break- 
fast. this morning, 5. Be had his ears froze, 6. Father has 1 
witli me several times. 7. The little girls were forsook by all 
their friends. 8. Thomas has give two dollars. ( .». It growed a lit- 
tle Last month. 10. Eas Wallace went yet. 

.■>. Save you payed your accounts. 2. 1 h&veknew him for two 
months. 3. The children went home. 4. Those apples were ate 
last night. 5. Jt was gave for that purpose. 6. He lias gana m 
public before. 7. Jennie sung very well. S. The wicked man has 
his brother. 9. French is spoke in every state in Europe. 
10. Have you shook the carpet. 

(5. I have rang several times. 2. They seen him do it. 3. She 

remarkably well. 4. They seen the boys in the garden. 

5. The hell lias rang. G. Carrie has saio it before. 7. The steamer, 

Emerald, sunk with all on board. S. The eggs have sank in the 

water. 9. Have you shook the tree. 10. We have ran all the way. 

7. He strived to obtain the appointment. 2. Willie has sto 
hard to win the prize. 3. The school bell has rang an hour ago. 

4. Charley has wrote his exercise. 5. I have threw away my 
peaches. 6. Is the boy's coat tore? 7. Has he wove the cloth yet? 
8. A thief has stole my watch. 9. He has mistook his true interest. 
10. Cousin Frank has wore his boots three months. 

8. I have often siram across the river. 2. I throwed my box- 
away. 3. They have forgot to call. 4. I have mistook the street. 

5. Are the goods stole? G. The dog sprung over the hedge. 7. 
His mother teached him how to do it. 

"Some discus-ion arose in regard to who should be sent." 



( discussion L'. ?. arose B.13. ) 



( Some ) 






to ( WhO U.I . Should be -|- sent ) 



In * Itton, t<>, tuu for tt - obJe< I I who 

tihonld be suit. 



98 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Ail Irregular Verb is one which does not form 
its past tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed 
to the present tense. 

These lists contain the Principal Parts of most of the Irregular 
Verbs. Those marked r have also the regular forms. 







PERFECT 






PERFECT 


PRESENT. PAST. 


PARTICIP. 


PRESENT 


. PAST. 


PARTICIP 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode." 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealt. 


Am, 


was, 


been. 


Dig, 


dug, R. 


dug, R. 


Awake, 


awoke, R. awoke. 


Dream, 


dreamt, p, 


. dreamt, r 


Become 


, became, 


become. 


Dress, 


drest, r. 


drest, r. 


Befall 


befell, 


befallen. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, r. 


dwelt, r. 


Behold, 


beheld, 


heheld. 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Bend, 


bent, r. 


bent, R. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Bereave 


, bereft, r 


. bereft, r. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Bet, 


bet, r. 


bet, r. 


Fight, 


fought 


fought. 


Betide, 


f betided, 
I betid, 


betided, 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


betid. 


Forbear, 


forbore, 


forborne, 


Bid, 


(bid, 
1 bade, 


bid, 


Flee, 


fled. 


fled. 


bidden. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Bite, 


bit, 


f bitten, 
I bit. 


Freight, 


freighted, fraught,R. 






Get, 


got, 


gotten. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bourfd, 


Gild, 


gilt, r. 


gilt, R. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Gird, 


girt, r. 


girt, r. 


Bless, 


J blessed, 
I blest, 


blessed, 


Grave, 


graved, 


graven, r. 




blest. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Hang, 


hung, r. 


hung, R. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Build, 


built, r. 


built, r. 


Heave, 


hove, R. 


hove, R. 


Burn, 


burnt, r. 


burnt, R. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewn, R. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst, 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden. 


Clothe, 


clad, 


clad. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Hold, 


he4d, 


held, 


Crow, 


crew, R. 


crowed. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt, 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Dare, 


durst, r. 


dared. 


i Kneel, 


knelt, r. 


knelt. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



99 



PRESENT. PAST. 



Knit, 

Lay. 

Lead, 

Lean, 

Leap, 

Learn, 

Leave, 

Lend, 

Let, 



knit, R. 

Laid, 

led, 

leant, R. 

leapt, r. 
learnt, k. 
left, 

lent, 
Let, 



Lie(r«cKne)lay 



Light, 

Meet, 

Mow. 
Pass, 



lit, R. 
lost, 
met, 
mowed, 
past, r. 



Pen, incZ.)tPent, r. 



Plead, 

Put. 

Quit, 

Rap, 

Read, 

Reave, 

Rend, 

Rid, 

Seethe, 

Seek, 

Shak«\ 

Shape, 

Shave, 

Shear, 

Shed, 

Shine, 

Shoe, 

Shoot, 

Shred, 

Shut, 



f plead, R. 
I pied, 

put, 

quit, r. 

rapt, R. 

read, 

reft, 

rent, 

rid, 

sod, R. 

.-ought, 

set, 

shook. 

Bhaped, 

shaved, 

Bhore, R. 

shed, 

shone, r. 

shod, 

shot, 

shred, 

shut, 

sat, 






PERFECT 
PARTICIP. 

knit, R. 

laid. 
led. 

leant, r. 
leapt, r. 

learnt, R. 

left. 

lent. 

let, 

lain. 

lit, R. 

lost. 

met. 

mown, R. 

past, 

pent, r. 

plead, 

pled. 

put. 

quit, R. 

rapt, r. 

read. 

reft. 

rent. 

rid, 

sodden, r. 

sought. 

set. 

shaken, 

shapen, r. 

shaven, r. 

shoni. R. 

shed, 
shone, R. 
shod, 
b ho t . 
Bhred. 
Bhut . 
sat. 



PRESENT. 

Sleep, 

Sling, 

Slink, 

Slit, 

Smell, 

Speed, 

Spell, 
Spend, 

Spill, 

Spin, j 

Spit, { 

Split, 

Spread, 

Spoil, 

Stav, 

Stand, 

Stave, 

Stick, 

Sting, 

Stride, j 

Strike, 

St row, 

sweat, 

Sweep, 

Swell, 

Swing, 

Tell, 

Think, 

Thrive, 

W;,ke, 

Wed, 

Whet, 

Wind, 
Work, 

Wri: 



PAST. 

slept, 

slung, 

slunk, 

slit, 

smelt, 

sped, 

Spelt, R. 

spent, 

spilt, R. 

spun, 

span, 

spit, 

spat, 

split, 

spread, 

spoilt, R. 

staid, R. 

stood, 

stove, R. 

stuck, 

stung, 

strode, 

strid, 

struck, 

strowed, 

sweat, R. 

swept, 

swelled, 
SWIM 
told, 
thought, 
throve R. 

woke. R. 

wed, r. 

Wet, \l. 
Whet, tt. 

wound, 
wrought, 

wrung, 



PERP1 CT 
PARTICIP. 

slept. 

slung, 
slunk, 
slit. 
smelt, R. 

sped, 
spelt, r. 

spent. 
Spilt, R. 

spun. 

spit, 

spit ten. 

split, 

spread. 

spoilt. R. 

staid, K. 

stood. 

stove. R. 

stuck. 

stung, 

stridden, 

strid. 

struck. 

strown. 

sweat, k. 

swept. 
Swollen. K. 

swung. 

told, 
thought. 

thriven. u. 
woke. 1;. 
wed. 1:. 

Wet. B. 

whet, i:- 

wound. 

wrought, 
wrui 



100 APPENDIX c 

CONJUGATION OF THE YERB " TO BE," 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am, 1. We are, 

2. You are (thou art), 2. You are, 

3. He is; 3. They are. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have been, 1. We have been, 

2. You have been (thou hast,) 2. You have been, 

3. He has been; 3. They have been. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was, 1. We were, 

2. You were (thou wast), 2. You were, 

3. He was; 3. They were. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. You had been (thou hadst), 2. You had been, 

3. He had been; 3. They had been. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall be, 1. We shall be, 

2. You will be (thou wilt), 2. You will be, 

3. He will be; 3. They will be. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. You will have been, 2. You will have been, 

3. He will have been; 3. They will have been, 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.* 
PRESENT TENSE. 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

2. If you be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be; 3. If they be. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. If I were, 1. If we were, 

2. If you were (thou wert), 2. If you were, 

3. If he were; 3. If they were. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. If I had been, 1. If we had been, 

2. If you had been, 2. If you had been, 

3. If he had been; 3. If they had been. 

*The forms of the subjunctive, which differ from those of the indie 
ative. are shown by the full -face type. 



APPENDIX, 10] 

POTENTIAL MODE 
PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular, Plural, 

1. I may be, 1. We may be, 

2. You may bo, 2. You may be, 
;i. Ho may bo; 3, They may be. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. You may have been, 2. You may have been, 
:». He may have been; 3. They may have been. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I might be, 1. We might be, 

'2. You might be, 2. You might be, 

3. He might be; 3. They might be. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. You might have been, 2. You might have been, 
:». He might have been; 3. They might have been. 

RBM.—Sftall 1 in the first person, and will, in the second and third, fu- 
ture tenses, are used to denote futurity. When loill is used in the first 
person, or shall, in the second or third, determination or necessity, as well 
BS futurity, is represented. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LOVE." 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 



1. 

3. 


lar. Plural. 

I love, 1. We love, 
Thou lovest, 2. You love, 
He loves; :'>. They love. 


1. 
2 


PRESENT PERFECT TEN6 
I have loved, 1. We have loved, 
Thou hast loved. -i. You have loved, 

He has loved; 3. They have loved 


i. 
2 € 


PAST TENSE. 

I loved, 1. We loved, 
Thou loved- 2. You loved, 
He loved: . Loved. 



102 APPENDIX. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
Singula?*. Plural. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved; 3. They had loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 

2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 

3. He will love; 3. They will love. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 

3. He will have loved; 3. They will have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love,, 2. If you love, 

3. If he love; 3. If they love. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 

2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 

3. If he loved; 3. If they loved. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. If I had loved, 1. If we had loved, 

2. If thou hadst loved, 2. If you had loved, 

3. If he had loved; 3. If they had loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

1. I may love, 1. We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 

3. He may love; 3. They may love. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved; 3. They may have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I might love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 

3. He might love; 3. They might love. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



103 



PAST PERI I 01 

.7(7/'. 

1. I might have Loved, 

2. Thou mights! have Loved, 
;;. He might have loved ; 



TENSE. 



Plural. 

1. We might have Loved, 

2. You might have loved, 
S. They might have Loved. 



CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARIES. 







Si HO"/ (17'. 






Plural. 






Jut per. 


2d per. 


vVf/ per. 


1st ))cr. 


2d per. 


3d per 




1 


Thou 


ire 


Vim 


riu n 


Pres. 


— Am 


art 


is 


are 


are 


are 


Past 


— Was 


wasl 


was 


were 


were 


were 


Pres. 


—Do 


dost 


does 


do 


do 


do 


Past 


— Did 


didst 


did 


did 


did 


did 




— Have 


hast 


has 


have 


have 


have 


Past 


-Had 


hadst 


had 


had 


had 


had 




— Wi 1 


wilt 


will 


will 


will 


will 


Past 


— Would 


wouldst 


would 


would 


would 


would 


Pre-. 


—Shad 


shalt 


shall 


shall 


shall 


shall 


Past 


—Should 


shouldst 


should 


should 


should 


should 




-May 


mayst 


may 


may 


may 


may 




—Might 


mightst 


might 


might 


might 


might 


Pres. 


— Can 


canst 


can 


can 


can 


can 




—Could 


conldst 


could 


could 


could 


could 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



Dr. 
Or. 

Uaj. 



Doctor. 
lit. 
Colonel. 
ral. 

Lieutenant. 

Company. 

ire. 
Governor, 
end. 



Hon. 

Atty. 

A. M. 

P. 8. 

M. 

P. .)/. 
Bbl. 
Lb. 



Honorable. 
Attorney. 
( laptain. 
Forenoon. 
Post Office, 
script. 

Noon. 
After 

Barrel. 

ikI. 



Prei. 

Feb. 

Mr J,. 

Apr. 



Ident. 

January. 
February. 

March. 

April. 
August. 

Sept. 

►ber. 

i;iltrr. 

! ). cember. 



ttt, or Str 
rintendent. 

United B 
M. I V:;er of (.'■ 



A. D. In theyear of our Lord 
lect on deliverj 

Last month. 

month. 
This month. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Shall should be used with the first person (I or we) 
and Trill with the second and third person (thou or he, 
you or they) to denote a future action or event. 

Remark.— When it is desired to express determination or necessity 

in future time will should be used with the first person and shall with the 
second and third person. 

SENTENCES . 

To be corrected: 

1. I think I will return home. 2. He shall be here this even- 
ing. 3. Now that the war is over, the army shall he disbanded. 
4. If I was you I would remain at home. 5. They shall go with 
you. 6. When will we three meet again? 7. The books shall be 
there early in the morning. 8. One of my books were on the table. 
9. We will see you. 



PRES. TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


PRES. PARTICIPLE. 


PAST PARTICIPLE. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sitting, 


sat. 


Set, 


set, 


setting, 


set. 


Lie, 


lay, 


lying, 


lain. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laying, 


laid. 



Lay and set are transitive verbs; lie and sit are intransitive 
verbs. 

Fill' the blanks in the following sentences, using the proper 
form of one of the verbs, sit, set, lie or lay: 

1. We on benches during the day, and on bears' 

skins during the night. 2. George the bottle on the table. 

3. They have all the chairs and tables in place. 4. Belle 

the lamp on the table a few moments ago. 5. We on the 

bench by the brook yesterday. 6. We often there and read. 

7. I the paper on the table only a moment ago. 8. down 

on the sofa and rest awhile. 9. I have on this bed for two 

weeks. 10. He the book on the desk and there it yet. 



LETTERS. 105 

ORDER FOR GOODS. 

Kansas City, m<>., August L7, 1889, 
Messrs. Jones .v- Brown, 

Please deliver to bearer, with bill, for me, 
One pair Rubber Boots, No. 8. 

One pair Leather Slippers, Xo. 7. 

John TT. Lyons. 
Per. 

Suggestions. —Explain the object of such orders. Call attention to form 
-inning-, 086 of capital Letters and punctuation. Signature should be that 
of the firm with student's initials underneath. 

Write the following orders: 

Name of city, New York; date, to-day. Order two dozen nap- 
kin rings, plain, solid; three dozen tea-spoons; two Elgin 
watches, IS carat, stem winders, of Win, Dawson & Co. Sign the 

name of Clement, Wilson & Co. 

Name of city, Cincinnati; date, to-day. Order of C. W. But- 
ler & Co. five lbs. granulated sugar, two lbs. Rio coffee, two Lbs. 
Japan tea. Ordered by M. C. Coughton. 

ORDER FOR GOODS FROM ABROAD. 

Cleveland, Ohio, Jan. 1, L 
Messrs. H. b. Hurd & Co., 

283 Canal St., New York. 
Gentlemen: — Please ship by American Express, as booh aa 
iible, the following goods: 

Two casks Valencia Raisins. 

Three boxes Sicily Oranges. 

I will remit promptly upon receipt oi your invoice. 
Yours truly, 

IIi.nkv Hammond. 

Suggestions. — \ OC from beginning name and addret Notice the 

ining,and modify same to apply to any freight Line, what 
d be need Instead ol " 

■ r meaning? Each item on a line by itself. What other oloaing par* 
I for the one In the form? 



106 LETTERS. 

Write the following orders: 

Name of city, Chicago ; date, to-day. Order of H. B. Clanin 
& Co., 19th and Broadway, New York, 10 yds. black broad-cloth, 
eight yds. French cassimere, and five yds. doeskin. Request them 
to use care in selecting the goods, and to forward them without 
delay, via Adams Express. Sign the name of J. W. Webster. 

Name of city, Detroit; date, to-day. Order of James Burton 
& Co., 123 Pearl St., Boston, five cases Labrador herring, three 
kits mackerel, and two hhds. N. O. sugar. Request them to ship 
by the Star Union line, and to draw on you at sight for the amount 
of the bill. Sign your own name. 

ORDER FOR GOODS— Inclosing Price. 

Chicago, Nov. 1, 1889 
Messrs. Arnold, Constable & Co., 
New York. 
Gentlemen : — Please forward me by U. S. Express at once, 
1 Lancaster Spread, - - $3.50 
12 yds. Gingham, $ .15, - 1.80. 

3 doz. Napkins, $3.00, - - 9.00 $14.30 

For which I enclose P. O. money order. 

Respectfully, 

William Miller. 

Suggestions.— Observe critically: The name and address. The punctu 
ation and use of capital letters. The form of expression and how it may be 
modified. Where the items should be placed and where the total. 

Write the following orders: 

Order of J. W. Lunt & Co., Boston, 6 prs. men's thick boots, at 
$3.50; 8 prs. boy's stoga boots, at $2.50; 4 prs. kip boots, at $3.00. 
Date, to-day. Inclose price by New York exchange. Sign your 
own name. 

Order of W. W. Nead & Co., Albany, N. Y., 4 Charter Oak 
stoves, No. 3, at $18.40; 6 Home Comfort ranges, at $37.75; 9 
Ragburn copper boilers, at $3.50; 15 granite dish pans, at $1.13. 
Date, to-day. Inclose price by Buffalo exchange. Sign the 
name of G. E. Pallen. 



paksim; OF THE ADVERB. 107 

81. ADVEKKS. 

An adverb is a word used to modify or limit the 
meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as 
kk IIe arts cautiously;" "He is remarkably cautious;" 
"He acts mon cautiously." (See page 24.) 

Explanation.— An adverb is an abridged expression ased as a modifier; 
thus, cautious/// means in a cautious manner: remarkably means ina remarkable 
: and more means in a greater degree. So here is equivalent to in this 
place; then, to at that time, etc. 

Adverbs may be divided into live general classes : 
Adverbs of manner, of degree, of time, of place, 
and of cause. (See page 37.) 

ORDER OF PARSING. 

1. An Adverb, and why? 
•J I lompare it. 

3. Tell what it modifies. 

4. Rule. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

1. "They acted wisely." 

Wisely. . is an adv< rh of manner; compared, wisely, more 
wisely, mosl wisely, and modifies acted. Rule L8: 
"Adverba modify verbs, adjectives, participles and 
adverbs. " 

2. •' Why do y<>u tremble?' 1 

Why . • . . is an i \verb\ interrogative ; not compared, and mod- 
ifies do tremble. Rule 18. 

\s. "Catch the manners Living as they ris< 

As ... standa for two phrases, at 

the time, and in which, and modifies catch and 
rite. Rule I v - 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. "I will go whenever you wish." 

Whenever . is a conjunctive adverb ; it stands for two phrases, at 
time and at which, and modifies will go and wish. 
Rule 18. 

5. "The two little boys walk hand in hand." 
Hand in hand is an adverbial phrase; it modifies walk. Rule 18. 

Suggestion.— Exercises for parsing may be selected from the sentences 
given on pages 25 and 39. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions are words which are used with nouns 
and pronouns in the formation of phrases which are 
used as modifiers ; or, a preposition is a word which is 
used to show the relation between its object and some 
other word in the sentence. (See pages 28 and 47.) 

Remark.— The object of a preposition may be a word, a phrase, or a 
clause. 

LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 

A; "Be quiet, and go a fishing." 

Aboard; "To go or he aboard a ship." 

About; "To run about the house." "To dine about noon." 

Above; "The stars above us." "To be above meanness." 

According to; "Proceed according to law." (Page 47.) 

Across; "A tree lying across the road." 

After; "After life's fitful fever, he sleeps well." 

Against; "Uplift against the sky, your mighty shapes." 

Along; "The cloud is gilded along the border." 

Amid, amidst; "A lark reared her brood amid the corn." 

Among, amongst; "Flowers perish among weeds." 

Around; "I hear around me cries of fear." 

As to; "As to the parts of the cargo, they were already gone." 

At; "She is at home." "The bell rings at six." 

Athwart; i l Athwart the waste the pleasant home-light shines. " 



PREPOSITIONS. 10? 

Before; u The tree before the house." k To rise before day " 

Behind; "The squirrel hid i>ckind the tree." 

Belo»; The James River la very crooked &< tow Richmond/ 

Beneath; "The steps creaked beneath his noiseless tread."" 

Beside; "A Large sycamore grew beside the river." 

Besides; u There is nothing at all besides this manna." 

Between; -The town is situated &< ftoe< w two mountain-/ 

Betwixt; "He was crushed b( twixt two ear-." 

Beyond; "The Life beyond the grave Is a mystery.' 1 

But=except; "Whence all 6irt him had fled." 

By; "A Lily by a brook/' "Demolished by soldiers/' 

Concerning; "He spoke concerning virtue." 

Down; u The boat went down the river," 

During; c 'IIe remained abroad during the war." 

Ere; "He came ere noon." 

Except, excepting; k, All except him were set free." 

For; k T looked up for a moment." "I sell for cash/' 

From; "He felt like a leaf torn/ro??i a romance." 

In; "Late in life, he began life in earnest." 

Into; "Tie gazed into the vast surrounding darkness." 

Like; "My brother looks like him." 

Notwithstanding; "He is proud, notwithstanding his poverty/ 

Of; k% 'Tis the middle watch of a summer's night/' 

Off; "Juan Fernandez lies off the coast of Chili." 

On; 4, The picture on the wall." u To start on Tuesday." 

Ont of; "Drawn out of a well." "A piano out of tune." 

Over; "The billows had rolled over him." "He rules over us." 

Past; 4 *He drove past our house this morning." 

Round; "A shoreL 38 ocean tumbled round the globe." 

Save; "All save him remained " 

Since; "He has not been here since last Christmas. 

Till, until; "He will remain here till next Christmas." 

Through; "Then 3tep1 she down through town and field, 

Throughout; "Much anxiety was felt throughout the I 

To; "To go to the river." 

Toward, towards "He turned m the moonligh 

Under; "He stands ereel under the curved roof " 

Unto; "Verily, I Bay unto you." 

Up; "He p the river M 

Upon; "Th< walking upon the burr] 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

With; "The sky was red voith flame." 

Within; " Ambition and pride stirred within him." 

Without; "The morning broke without a sun." 

Great care is necessary in the selections of preposi- 
tions. The ones should be used which exactly express 
the relations intended by the speaker. 

During should be used when the event continues through all 
the period mentioned; as "I have examined law papers during the 
day." 

In or at is used before the names of countries, cities and towns ; 
as, "He lives in Cincinnati;" "They reside at Clifton;" "They 
stayed in London." 

Into should be used after verbs denoting entrance; as, "She 
came into the house;" "He put his hands into his pockets." 

At is generally used after to be, not followed by a predicate; as, 
"They are at home;" "She is at school." When a predicate is 
understood, or clearly implied, to should be used; as, "I have 
been to Cincinnati." 

Upon should follow bestow and dependent; as, "Many favors 
were bestowed upon me;" "He is dependent upon his friends." 

From should follow differ and dissent; as, "I differ from you;" 
"I dissent from that decision." 

In should follow confide; as, "I confide in you." 

Remark.— The following is a list of prepositions which are used but little : 
Alongside, afore, adown, aneath, aslant, atwixt, despite, inside, outside, minus , 
plus, per, underneath, versus, via, along with, despite of, from among, from be- 
fore, from betwixt , from under, off of \ over against, round about, but for, except- 
ing, regarding, touching, respecting. (See page 40.) 

Punctuation.— The Quotation Marks [" "] are used to show 
that a passage is taken verbatim from some author. 



CONJUNCTIONS. Ill 



OKPEK OF PAUSING. 

1. A Preposition, and why? 

2. How is it used? 

3. Rule. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

1. u We live on the prairie.' 1 

On is a preposition; with the noun, prairie, it forms a 

phrase which modifies the verb, lives. Rule 24. 

2. "They came /row over the river.' 1 

From over . is a complex preposition; with the noun, river, it 
forms a phrase which modifies the verb, came. Rule 
24. (Page 47.) 

Suggestion.— Parse (he prepositions in the sentences on page 29 and cor 

rect the errors. 

THE CONJUNCTION. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, 
phrases and sentences; as, "The horse and wagon 
were taken, but the driver escaped." 

Remark.— Conjunctions sometimes merely Introduce sentei 
' And it was Bald in those days.' 1 



CLASSES OF CONNECTIVES. 

Connectives may be divided into two classes: 
Coordinate and Subordinate. 

Coordinate Connectives are those which join 

elements of the same rank. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Subordinate Connectives are those which join 
elements of different ranks. They are used in com- 
plex sentences. (Page 45.) 

Explanation, — Co-ordinate conjunctions are connectives which 
form no part of the material of which a sentence is composed — 
their use being to unite the material into a single sentence. 

Examples.— "Peter and John went to the temple;" "Knowledge comes, 
but wisdom lingers ;" "The air is damp, and hushed, and close ;" "And love the 
offender, yet detest the offense." 

Explanation. — Relative Pronouns are a class of Subordinate 

Conjunctions which represent antecedents and to these antece- 
dents join clauses which describe them. Conjunctive Adverbs 
connect clauses and modify a word in each. 

LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

And; "The winds and the waves are absent there." 

As; "As you request it, I will go." 

As well as; "He, as well as I, was deceived." 

Consequently; "I am sick, consequently I cannot come." 

Even; "It was very cold ; even mercury was frozen." 

For; "Rise, for it is day." 

If; "I shall not go if it rain." 

So; "For Brutus is an honorable man; 

So are they all, all honorable men." 

Since; "Since you have come, I will go." 

Seeing; "Wherefore come ye to me, seeing ye hate me?" 

Than; "I am older than he." 

That; "It is admitted that the war is a calamity." 

Then; "You know our rules; then obey them." 

Moreover; It sometimes begins a paragraph. 

Therefore; "Wisdom is the principal thing, therefore get wis- 
dom." 

Wherefore; Use like therefore in drawing inferences. 

Although, though; " Though he owns but little, he owes noth- 
ing." 

But; "I go, but I return." 

Either; "Either John or Charles will come." 



CONJUNCTIONS . 113 

Neither; "Neither John nor Charles will come." 

Except; u He is Bane, except when he talks of me." 

Lest; "Neither shall ye touch it. /< st ye die." 

Nor; "Simois nor Xanthus shall be wanting there." 

Or; u We must educate, or we must perish," 

Provided; "He will go, provided his faro is paid," 

Save; "When all slept sound, save she who bore them both." 

Still; "He has often failed, still he strives," 

Unless; "Bemain, unless you must go." 

Whether; "I will ascertain whether he has come." 

Whereas; "Reason err-: ujlx&rea* instinct," etc. 

Yet; "All dread death, yet few are pious." 

Correlatives are conjunctions used in pairs, one 
referring to another. 

Both - - and; "It is both mine and yours." 

As - - - as; "I am as tall as you." 

As - - - so; "As it was then, so it is now." 

So - - - as; "He is not so tall as I." 

So - - - that; "It was so cold that I nearly perished. " 

Either - or; "It is either mine or yours." 

Neither nor; "It is neither mine nor yours." 

If - - - then; "If he confessed it, then forgive him." 

Though - yet, nevertheless; "Though deep, yet clear." 

Xot only but also; "He was not only rich, 6u{ also generous." 

Whether or; "I know not whether it is mine or yours.*" 

Nor - - - nor; Often used by poets instead of neither nor. 

Certain combinations of words have the force of 
connectives, and should be parsed as such: 

Examples.- 1 . 09 weU a$ t OS far as, as I many as, in so 

murk that, but a 16.) 

OKDEB OF PAUSING. 

What part ol speech ? 
%, l o-ordinate or Subordina U . and why? 

3. What does, it connect':' 

4. Rule. 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

lo "George or I will aid in the work." 

Or ... . is a conjunction; co-ordinate; it connects George and 
I. Rule 20. 

Rule 20. — Co-ordinate conjunctions connect similar 
elementSo 

2. "I shall go as soon as they return." 

As soon as is a conjunction; co-ordinate; it connects the two 
sentences, I shall go and they return. Rule 20. 

3o "Neither Arthur nor Henry wrote the letter." 

Neither - nor are conjunctions ; correlative ; neither introduces 
the sentence and nor connects Arthur and Henry. 
Rule 20. 

4. "He succeeds because he is industrious." 

Because - is a conjunction ; subordinate; it joins dissimilar el- 
ements; it connects le&rns and he is studious. 
Rule 21. 

Rule 21. — Subordinate conjunctions connect dis- 
similar elements. 

Suggestion.— Parse the coujuntions in the sentences on pages selected 
in different parts of the work. 

THE INTERJECTION. 

An Interjection is a word used to denote some 
sudden or strong emotion; as, "Tush! tush! 'twill 
not again appear." "Pshaw! that is ridiculous." 

Remark.— The following are some of the principal interjections: Ah, fie, 
ho, hallo, alas, avaunt, alack, ha, indeed, bravo, faugh, fudge, begone, adieu, 
farewell, good-by, ahoy, lo, hark, whist, avast, hold, eh? hey? hail, all-hail, hush, 
hist, heigho. 



[NTERJECTIONS. 115 

Explanation*— Interjections have no grammatical construction 
or definite meaning. They occur frequently in colloquial or Im- 
passioned discourse, and are expressions oi emotion only. They 
are generally found at the commencement of sentence-. 

Remark.— Other parts of Bpeeofa may be treated as Interjections, when 
used as Bnch ; as, "My stars ! what can all ihi> be? 1 

The interjection is to bo parsed as "having no gram- 
matical relation to the other parts of the sentence." 

The following* etymologies of a few common interjections may 
he of interest : 

Amen, a Hebrew adverb signifying verily, truly % yea. 

Good-bye, God 6 1 v:P ye— God be with you. 

dear, Dieu=0 God. 

Alas! ah lesso=0 [me] miserable. 

Adieu, a dieu=[l commend you] to God. 

An Exclamatory Sentence is one that expresses 
a thought in an interjectional manner; as, "Oh! that 
this too, too solid llesh would melt!" "Oh, how glad 
I am to see you ! * ' 

Below will be found a few illustrations of the use of interjec- 
tions : 

1. They opened their mouth wide against me, and Bald : "Aha! 
aha!" 

2. Fy! my lord,/?.' a soldier, and afraid! 

3. Alas! both for the deed and for thr cause. 

A. Alack! when once we have ouj forgot, nothing ■ ■ 

right 

.' hark! a deep Bound strikes Like a rising knell, 

Nature, how In every charm Bupremel 

7. if'! Laugh'sl thou. Lochiel, my vision to 

8. -If"! shifts Bhe thus? 91 King Benry cried. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

27. DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTIONS. 

Many of the commonest expressions in our language 
involve difficulties in analysis which render it unsatis- 
factory if not impossible. They are idiomatic con- 
structions which do not come under the general prin- 
ciples which govern the language 

Remark.— An effort may be made to analyze the following sentences 
after supplying the words which are supposed to be missing: 

1. They are not so proud as he nor so vain as she. 2. This 
heart of mine will break. 3. Sing to the Lord all ye saints of his. 

4. Those lips of my father' 's are now closed for ever. (Page 82). 

5. How much (x) is it (x) worth? 6. It is (x) worth (x) while to 
go to Strasburg to see the Cathedral. 7. Victory over one's self 
is a victory (x) worth (x) talking of (which). 8. (It is) So much 
the better. 9. (I wish you) Good morning, Uncle; what a fine 
day it is! 

"They all declared that he must be older than she." 



( They declared ( he must be t older 23. j 



( a11 *-*') B.6. (TEajT) 

(she B.l. is t — — ) 



In this sentence the transitive verb, declared, has for its object the com- 
plex clause, that he must be older than she. That, being a word of 
euphony, is omitted. She is the subject of is understood. 

2. Thy throne is established of old (time). 2. Forgive me (x) 
this once. 3. All (x) at once the sky was overcast. 4. What (would 
be the consequence) if an insurrection should break out? 5. We 
have more (x) than heart could wish (for which). 6. He brought 



DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTIONS, 1 1 7 

me more fruit than (that La which) is Deeded. 7. I shall procure 
only as many books as (those books are which | are Deeded. 8. A 
reward shall '»<> given to whoever (him who) shall arrest the 

criminal. 9. At the time that (at which) I was there DOt a man 

was in sight. 10. They hurt themselves more than (they hurt) 
us. 11. [ am older than he (U). 

Remark.— The words in Italics are used aa the predicates In the follow- 
sentences. Such construction, though sanctioned bj usage, should be 
avoided bo far as possible. 

1. He was listened to without a murmur. 2. Their enterprise is 
Dot to be i '. 3. Vocal music was made U8i of 1. It ought 

not to be lost sight of 5. They were scoffed at by the multitude. 

(Page GO). 

POSSESSIVE FORMED. 

The Possessive Form of singular nouns and of 

plural nouns which do not end in 8 is made by annex- 
ing 9 s to the nominative; as, John's hat; Hudson's 
book; men's coats; children's shoe 

The Possessive Form of plural nouns ending in 
s is formed by annexing the apostrophe only; as, boys* 
hats; girls' shoes. 

lingular nouns ending in the sound- of s or .v. take th< 
3, James's book; Wells's history; For 
\ Igebra. 

Remark. — In the following and similar constructions the p< 
is given to the nonn which stands next to the \\<>r<i modified by the] 

1« That portrait of your friend's should be varnished. 2. The 
►p oJ I > ; din 1 

King !i rnment. 5. My brother-ln-li 

. My friend, the doctor's v.-ifr ba* I d taken 

sly ill. 7. 'J i, 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 

The numbers of the rules are placed in the diagrams ivith the words to which 
they apply. 

Rule I. — A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a sentence 
is in the nominative case. 

Rule II. — A noun or pronoun used as the predicate of a sen- 
tence is in the nominative case. 

Rule III. — A noun or pronoun denoting possession is in the 
possessive case. 

Rule IV. — A noun or pronoun used to limit the meaning of a 
noun or pronoun denoting the same person or thing is, by apposi- 
tion, in the same case. 

Rule V. — A noun or pronoun, used independently, is in the 
nominative absolute case. 

Rule VI. — The object of a transitive verb is in the objective 
case. 

Rule VII. — The object of a preposition is in the objective case. 

Rule VIII. — A noun or pronoun used to modify a participle is 
in the possessive case. 

Rule IX. — Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in per- 
son, gender and number. 

Rule X. — A pronoun, with two or more antecedents in the 
singular, connected by and, must be plural. 

Rule XI. — A pronoun, with two or more antecedents in the 
singular, connected by or or nor, must be singular. 

Rule XII. — An adjective describes or defines some noun or 
pronoun. 

Rule XIII. — A verb must agree with its subject in number and 
person. 

Rule XIV. — A verb, with two or more subjects in the singular, 
connected by and, must be plural. 

Rule XV. — A verb, with two or more subjects in the singular, 
connected by or or nor, must be singular. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 11 l J 

Rule XVI. — The subject of an Infinitive is in the objective 
case. 

Bulb XVII. — In Subjunctive Clauses the plural form of the 
verb is generally used, even with singular subjects. 

Rule XVIII. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and adverbs 

Rtjlb xix. — The verb, to be, takes the same case after ii as 
before it. 

Rule XX. — Co-ordinate conjunctions connect similar elements. 

RULB XXI. — Subordinate conjunctions connect dissimilar cle- 
ment-. 

RULE XXII. — An adjective and the noun which it modifies 
should agree in number. 

RULE XXIII. — An adjective or participle, used as the predicate 
of a sentence, modifies the subject. 

RULE XXIV. — A preposition -hows the relation of it^ object to 
the word modified by the prepositional phrase. 



Page 19. 



Predicate, followed by an object. R. «'.. 



( Pre 

Verbs are- Predicate, M no object. 

(copulative. " f Predicate or predicate, R. 2. 

(Predicate. R. 23. 



Forms for correcting to : reviewing: 

Page ».— Her is a violation <>f Rule 2; it Bhould have the nominative 

foni: . 
p AOa _.-,._sio\v la an adverb and Bhould have the adverbial form, tlowly. 

Page 87.— He la a violation of Bale 4; it should have the objective form, 
/,,„,, viih bi other. 

Page M.— In ttaeee ir< ftnd a violation ol Bole U; it should have the - 

lar form, th<if. 

tides! - ! in comparing two | ihould bav< 



120 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 

A Figure of Speech is an intentional deviation 
from the ordinary form, construction or application 
of words. Though admissible in both prose and 
poetry, they occur more frequently in the latter. 

Remark. — The figures of speech usually presented by rhetoricians are 
very numerous. Only the most important are here defined. 

Ellipsis is the omission of a word or words neces- 
sary to the construction of a sentence, but not essen- 
tial to its meaning. 

Examples. — " [He] who steals my purse, steals trash.'* "To whom 
thus Eve [spoke]." 

Pleonasm is the use of more words than are neces- 
sary. 

Examples. —"The boy, oh! where was he?" "I know thee, who thou 
art? " " I saw it with these eyes." All ye inhabitants of the world, and dwell- 
ers on the earth." 

Simile is the comparison of one object to another, 
and is generally denoted by like, as or so. 

Examples.-" Lilce a dog, he hunts in dreams." — Tennyson. " He shall 
be like a tree planted by the rivers of water." " Thy smile is as the dawn of 
the vernal day." 

Metaphor is the expression of similitude without 
the signs of comparison. 

Examples. — "He shall be a tree planted by the rivers of water." "A 
*ea of troubles." " The moralist is a scout for consequences." " The wish is 
father to the thought." 

Personification is the attributing of sex, life, or 
action to an inanimate object; or the ascribing of in- 
telligence to an inferior creature. 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 121 

Examples. — •• Winter.' ruler of the inverted year." "The earth 
mourneth and fadeth away.' 1 "The Sea saw it and fled." "The Worm, 
aware of hia Intent, harangued him thus." 

Vision, or Imagery, is the representation of past 
events, or imaginary objects and scenes, as actually 

present to the senses. 

Examples. — "] Bee the rural virtues leave the land." — Goldsmith 
- by the convulsed Lips of hex poisoned, dying Demos- 
thenes." — Everett. "Caesai leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters 
Italy." "They rally, they bleed, for their kingdom and crown." 

Irony is a mode of expression by which what is said 

is contrary to what is meant. 

Examples. — "Cry aloud, for he is a god." M No doubt but ye are the 

people, and wisdom will die with you." " You are a pretty fellow! " 

Apostrophe is a turning from the regular course of 
the subject, into an invocation or address. 

Examples. — Ye toppling crags of ice! 

Ye avalanches, whom a breath draws down, 

In mountainous overwhelming, come and crush me. 

— Byron, 

Climax is the arrangement of a succession of words, 
clauses, members, or sentences, in such a way thai the 
Weakest may stand first, and that each in turn, to the 
end of the sentence, may rise in importance. 

Examples. — " Who -hall separ; rty, or mu/brtune, 01 

'doit, or distress, 01 *n, or famine, <>r nakedness, or peri 

swordt" " U'' was a great, noble, distinguished man." 

Hyperbole is the exaggeration of attributes, or the 

gning to a subject of a wonderful and impossible 

act a- the resull of ardenl emotion. 

Example*.— "The land Mows with milk and hone gllafa 

lay by dipping words." — Voltaire. M I and 

Jonatl >nyer than li<>us." "And 

• r dived beneath his brd." 



LETTERS. 



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WORD ANALYSIS. 

"One hundred and forty thousand words: How 
shall we acquire a knowledge of them? The under- 
standing seems hopeless. But here Etymology, with 
its Greek and Latin Roots, comes to our aid." 

"While it is true that there are over one hundred 
thousand words in our language, it is also true that 
the key. to the meanings of a large portion of them is 
found in a few Root Words, numbering about three 
hundred." 

The Latin word facio, I make, enters into the com- 
position of about six hundred words. Three thousand 
words are derived from the following ten easy roots 
words: Capio, I take. Graphio, I write. Mitto, I 
send. Sedeo, I sit. Traho, I draw. Facio, I mak<>. 
Logos, reason. Pono, I place. Sisto,Istop. 

"Those who have given little attention to the sub- 
ject, would be astonished at the number of words into 
which a single prefix or suffix enters. Take, for 
example, the prefix un, meaning in verbs, to reverse 
the act of , as in the words undo, untie, unbind, and 
we shall find it probably in not less than seven 
thousand words. Con, with the various forms, co, 
col, com, probably enters into the composition of five 
thousand words." 

— From A. C. Webb's Manual of Etymology. 



124 ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 



ORIGIN OF WORDS, 



By actual count more than two-thirds of the words 
in our language are of Greek and Latin origin. Anglo- 
Saxon words are employed so much more extensively, 
however, owing to the constant repetition of adverbs, 
prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries, etc. (all of 
Anglo-Saxon origin), that, in ordinary composition, 
they greatly predominate. A knowledge of the Pre- 
fixes and Suffixes, together with the Greek, Latin and 
Anglo-Saxon roots here presented, is estimated to give 
a key to the meaning of more than thirty thousand^ 
of our most useful derivative English words. The 
course is recognized as a satisfactory substitute for a 
classical education. 

A Simple, or primitive, word is a single significant term; as, man. 

A Complex or derivative word is one formed from some other 
word by placing a modifying letter, syllable, or syllables before or 
after it; as, manhood. 

A Compound word is two or more simple or complex words 
combined into one; as, man-servant. 

A Prefix is the part of a complex word placed before the base 5 
as, an£i~slavery. 

A Suffix is the part of a complex word placed after the base ; 
as, anti- slaver?/. 

The Base of a complex or compound word is the part represent- 
ing the leading idea; as, saiti- slavery . 

Direction. — Learn the prefixes in all their forms and the 
meaning, which is given in italics. Analyze the words given as 
examples. 



PREFIXES. 125 

Remark. — The prefixes, suffixes and roots are arranged alpha- 
betically and may be found as words are found in a dictionary. 
L. indicates Latin, G., Greek ami A. S. Anglo-Saxon. 

Jlodel. — in the word, avert, n means from or away; abject, »b mean* 
from or away; abstain, ab.s. from or away* 

PREFIXES. 

1. A, (ab, abs), L.,/rom, away; avert, abject, abstain. 
8. A, (an), G., without, not; at hoist, anarchy, apathy. 

3. A, A. S., at, to, in, on; abed, afar, astern. 

4. Ad. (a, ac, af, agr, al, an, ap, ar, as), L., to; adhere, ac- 
cede, afflict, aggrieve, allude, announce, append, arrive, assign. 

5. Ante, (anti), L., before; antecedent, anticipate. 

6. Anti, (ant), G., against, over, opposite; antithesis, ant- 
arctic. 

7. Be, A. S., to make, all over; bedaub, benumb, befriend. 

8. Bi, (bis), L., two; biped, bisextile, biscuit. 

9. Cireum, (circu), L., around; circumference, circuit. 

10. Con, (co, cog, col, com, cor), L., toith, together; convi 
cohere, cognate, collect, compose, correspond. 

11. Contra, (contro, counter), L., against; contradict, contro- 
vert, counteract. 

12. Pe, L., down, from; depend, deduce, descend. 

13. Pis, (di, dif), L., asunder, apart t the opposite of; disable, 
diverge, differ. 

14-. En, Em), G., in, on; encircle, emphasis, enthusiast. 
15. En, (em, lm), L., to make; enable, empower, impoverish. 
10. Fpi, GL, upon; epitaph, epidemic epigram. 
17. Ex, fe, ec), L., out, from; exclaim, export, educe, eccen- 
tric. 
is. Extra. L., beyond; extraordinary, extravagant. 
\\K Fore, a. s., before; foretell, forenoon, forebode, foreman. 

20. For, \. &., not, from; forg from; i. e. away from 
mind . forbid, forbear. 

21. In. il. im. ir , L., In rerbs and nouns means in, into, 
i; Include, Inhale, Illusion, Impel, Irruption. 

22. In, Kg, il, im, ir , L., in adj< 
ignoi d, immoral, Irregular. 



126 ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 

23. Inter, L., between, among; intercede, international. 

24. Mis, A. S., wrong; misguide, misconduct, misplace. 

25. Non, L., not; non-conductor, non-combatant, nondescript. 

26. Ob, (oc, of, op), L., in the way, against; obtrude, occur, 
offend, oppress, object. 

27. Out, A. S., beyond, move than; outdo, outlive, outbid. 

28. Over, A. S., above; overhang, overturn, overrule. 

29. Per, (pel), L., through, thoroughly ; pervade, perceive, pel- 
lucid. 

30. Post, L., after, behind; postscript, postmortem. 

31. Pre, L., before; prefix, precede, prevent. 

32. Pro, L., for, forward; pronoun, proclaim, propel, progress. 

33. Re, L., back, anew; return, revoke, reclaim, recollect. 

34. Retro, L., backward; retrograde, retrospect. 

35. Se, L., aside, apart; secede, separate. 

36. Sub, (sue, suf, sup, sus), L., under, below; subscribe, suc- 
ceed, suffuse, suppress, suspend. 

37. Super, (sur), L., above, over; superfine, surmount. 

38. Syn, (syl), G., together, with; synthesis, syllable. 

39. Trans, (tra), L., across, beyond, over; transpose, traduce. 

40. Un, A. S., before a verb means to take off, to reverse; un- 
roll, undo; Before an adjective, not; unable, uncertain. 

41. Under, A. S., under, beneath; underbid, undermine. 

42. With, A. S., from, against; withstand, withdraw. 

SUFFIXES. 

Direction. — Learn all the different forms which the suffixes 
assume in the formation of words, and the meaning, which is 
given in italics. Analyze the words given as examples. 

1. Able, (ible, ble), L., able, that may be, fit to be, worthy of; 
amicable, blamable, soluble, teachable, digestible, visible. 

2. Ably, (ibly, bly), L., state of being; amicably, perceptibly. 

3. Aceous, (acious), L., full of, like, having the quality of; 
crustaceous, pugnacious. 

4. Acy, L., being, state of being; accuracy, celibacy, privacy. 

5. Age, F., state of being, that ivhich, allowance for, collection of, 
act of; bondage, wharfage, cartage, carriage, foliage, herbage. 



SUFFIXES. 127 

6. Al, (ial, eal), L., o/, pertaining to, act of; naval, mental, 
social, paternal^ removal, filial, perusal) renewal) recital, moni- 
torial, corporeal* 

7. An, (n, ain, ian), L., belonging to, relating to, one who; 
Republican, captain, American, Christian) plebeian. 

8. Ance, (ancy), L., being, state of being, act of; Constancy, 
Ignorance) repentance, abundance. 

9. Ant, L., one who, that which; assistant, defendant, depend- 
ant, observant, pleasant. 

10. Ar, L., one who, of, like, pertaining to; globular, circular. 

11. Ard, (art), A. S., one who, that which: sluggard) braggart. 

12. Ary, L., one who, the place where, pertaining to; adversary, 
missionary, aviary, apiary, luminary, boundary. 

13. Ate, L., one who, to make, full of, having or being; animate, 
renovate, regulate, desperate, passionate, facilitate, debilitate* 

14. Cle, (cule), L., little, small; animalcule, corpuscle. 

15. Dom, A. S., domain of, state of being; kingdom, dukedom. 

16. Ed, A. S., did; relieved, trusted, magnified. 

17. Ee, F., one to whom, one who; absentee, refugee, mortgagee. 

18. Eer, (ier), F., one who; grenadier, auctioneer, brigadier. 

19. En, A. S., small, made of, to make; maiden, kitten, moisten. 

20. Ence, (ency), L., being, state of being, act of '; iunocency, elo- 
quence, existence, absence, diligence, impudence. 

21. Ent, (lent), L., being, one who, that which; potent, agent, 
president, student, pestilent, violent, virulent. 

22. Er, A. S., more, one who, that which; greater, builder, 
tender, fender, biographer, philosopher. 

23. Ery, (ry), A. S., place, condition; gentry, pantry, flowery. 

24. Es, (gees). 

25. Escence, L., state of becoming ; convalescence. 

26. Escent, L., becoming; convalescent, quiescent. 

27. Ess, (ress), P., female; lioness, shepherdess, conductress* 

28. Est, A. 8., most; Largest) homeliest, hottest. 

21). Ful, A. 8., full of; truthful, watchful, deceitful) joyful. 

80. Fy, L., to make; qualify, rectify, beautify, fortify, purify. 

31. Hood) A. S ig; childhood, girlhood. 

32. Ic, L., like, made of, pertaining to; academic, OCeanfC) 
astronomical, academical, cubical* 

83. Ice, L., person, the thing, thai; notice, -•■rvice. 



128 ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 

34. Ics, (ic), G., the science of, the art of; ethics, arthmetic. 

35. Id, L., quality , pertaining to; frigid, splendid, torrid. 

36. He, L., belonging to y may or can be; fragile, febrile, juvenile. 

37. Ine, L., pertaining to; feminine, infantine, canine, heroine. 

38. Ing, A. S., the act of continuing ; building, rehearsing. 

39. Ion, L., the art of, state of being; expansion, rebellion. 

40. Ise, (ize), G.,to make; idolize, criticise, scrutinize. 

41. Ish, A. S., to make, somewhat, like; brownish, Spanish. 

42. Ism, G., state of being, doctrine; heroism, spiritualism. 

43. 1st, G., an agent, one who; artist, theorist, homeopathist. 

44. Ite, L., one who is, being; favorite, millerite. 

45. Ity, (ty), L., being or state of being; equality, immensity. 

46. Ive, L., that which, one who, having power; inventive, pro- 
tective, captive, relative, corrective. 

47. Ix, L., a female; administratrix, testamentrix, executrix. 

48. Less, A. S., without; homeless, toothless, worthless. 

49. Like, A. S.> resembling; homelike, warlike, manlike. 

50. Ling, A. S„ little, young; darling, seedling, fondling. 

51. Ly, A. S., like, manner; friendly, softly, smoothly, kindly. 

52. Ment, L., state of being, act of, thing that; ornament, punish- 
ment, acquirement, elopement, concealment, movement. 

53. Mony, L., state of being, thing that; matrimony, testimony. 

54. Ness, A. S., being or state of being; tenderness, loveliness, 

55. Or, L., one who, thing that; director, inspector, error, debtor. 

56. Ory, L., relating to, the place where, the thing that; prefatory, 
factory, explanatory, purgatory. 

57. Ous, (eons, ious, ose), L.,full of, consisting of; dangerous, 
victorious, righteous, beauteous, dubious, verbose, jocose. 

58. Ky, (ery), A. S., a being, the art, collection, the place where ; 
bravery, knavery, coopery, entry, jewelry. 

59. S, or es, A. S., more than one; annals, benches, judges; s, 
eth and est are used with verbs that have a singular subject; he 
loves, he loveth, thou lovest. 

60. '$ or % A. S., his, the sign of the possessive of nouns; friend's 
council, horses' heads. 

61. Ship, A. S., office of, state of; friendship, township. 

62. Some, A. S., somewhat, causing, full of; gladsome, weari- 
some, lightsome, frolicsome. 

63. Ster, A. S., one who; roadster, teamster. 



ROOTS AND PARONYMS 129 

64. Tude, L., b> ■ ite of being; attitude, altitude. 

(>5. Dre 5 (tore)] L., the Mng t state of being, act of; creatures 
feature, fixture, scripture, exposure) seizure, capture. 
t>t>. Ward) a. s., direction of; homewards heavenward. 
G7. Wise, A. s., mania -wise, likewise, sidewtse* 

GS. Y, (ey), a. B., state f being, full of t mad, of; honesty, oon« 

8isteney, bloody, watery, rocky, clayey, thorny, cloudy. 



GREEK, LATIN AND ANGLO-SAXON ROOTS 
AND PARONYMS. 

1. .Equns, aequalis, L., equal; equal, co-, an-, in-, -ity 
-ise; equate, ad-, in-, -ion; equity; equitably; iniquity ; in 
iq-uitous. 

2. Aer, G., the air; aer, -ial, -iform; aerolite, aeronaut-. 
air, -y. 

3* Ago, L., I do, I drive; ag, -ent, -ency, -ile, -ity, agitate, 
-ion; act, counter-, en-, ex-, re-, over-, trans-, -ive, -ity, -lv, -ion, 
-or, meat, -ness; exigent; exigency; manage (manus), -er, -ment ; 
uavigate (uaris), circuin-, -ion, or; navigable. 

4. Amicus, L., a friend; amie, -able, -ably; inimical. 

5. Amo, L., I love; amor, en-, -ous: ami, un- -able, -ably, 
ability, -ty; amateur. 

6. Anima, L., life, the soul; anim, in-, ate, -ed, -i<>n, h 
equanimity; magnanimous (magnus); unanimous (mm*). 

7. Annus, L., a year; annu, -al -ity, -ly; enni, bi-, per-, 
tri-, mille-, al, -urn; anniversary (rerfo) ; annal, -s. .1st. 

8. Arche, G , beginning; government; arch archive; 
anarchy; heptarchy; hierarchy; monarch: oligarchy; patriarch* 

U. Anna, L., t; arm, dis-, un-, -ed, -or. or] 

armament; armistice; Armada. 

10. Ars, L., art; art, -full, -ist, -less, -ness; art i ti art- 
isan; artistic 

11. Astron, G.. astral; astrol- 

_• r, astronomy; astr >nam I iter* 

12. Audio, L., J hear; audi, in-, -ble, -My, -ence; radii Si 
-or, -ory. * 

13. Beacnian, A. S., to signal; beckon, < d, »ing; beacon. 



130 ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 

14. Beatan, A. S., to strike; beat, -ing; battle; beetle. 

15. Bene, L., good, well; benedict (dico), -ion; benefact 
(facio), -or, -ion, -ress; benevolence (volo); benefit (flo)*, bene- 
ficial; beneficent. 

16. Beorgan, A. S., to hide, borough; burglar; burrow; harbor. 

17. Beran, A. S., to carry; bear, un-, -able, -er, -ing; berth; 
bier; birth; burden. 

18. Bindan, A. S., to fasten; bind, re-, un-, er, -ing; band; 
bond; bound; bundle. 

19. Byrnan, A. S., to burn; burn; brand, fire-, -ed, -ing; 
brandy; brimstone; brown; burnt; auburn. 

20. Capio, L., I take; cap, in-, -able, -ability; capt, -or, -ure, 
-ious, -ive, -ity, -ate; cept, ac-, con-, de-, ex-, in-, inter-, pre-, re-, 
sua-, -ance, -ation, -ion, -iv«, -ible, -or; receptacle; cip, anti-, -ate, 
-ation; incipient; participate (pars). 

21. Caput, L., the head; cap, -tion; capit, de-, re-, -ate, -al, -ist, 
-tion; captain, -cy; precipice; precipitant; precipitate; capitu- 
late; chieftain. 

22. Carbo, L., coal; carbon, -aceous, -ate, -ic, -ize; carbon- 
iferous (fero). 

23. Caro, L., flesh; earn, in-, -ate, -age, -al, -ity, -ion; carni- 
val; carnivorous. 

24. Cedo, L., I go, I yield; cease* de-, -less; ceed, ex-, pro-, 
sue-, -ed, -ing; cede, ac-, ante-, con-, inter-, pre-, un-, se-, re-, 
-ent, -ence, -ed, -ure; cess, ac-, in-, inter-, con-, pro-, sue-, -ion, 
-ible, -ant, -or, -full, -ive. 

25. Centrum, L., the center; centr, con-, ec-, -ate, -ic, -ity, -al; 
centrifugal (fugio) ; centripetal (peto) ; center, -ed. 

26. Centum, L., a hundred; cent, per-, -age, centenary, -an, 
centennial (annum) centigrade (gradior); centipede (pes); 
centurion; century. 

27. Clamo, L., I call, I cry out; clamat, ac-, de-, ex-, pro-, -ion, 
-ory, -or; claim, ac-, de-, dis-, ex-, pro-, re-, un-, -ant, -ed, -ing; 
clamor, -er, -ous. 

28. Cor, L., the heart; cord, ac-, con-, dis-, re-, -ial, -ity, -ance, 
-ant, -er; cour, en-, dis-, -age, -ous, -ment; core, -ed. 

29. Corpus, L., the body; corpor, in-, -ate, -ion, -al, -eal; cor- 
set; corselet; corpulent; corpuscle; corps; corpse. 



ROOTS AND PARONYMS. 131 

30. Credo, L., I believe^ I trust to; cred, In-, -ence, -ible, -ity; 

credit, dis-, -able, -or; credul, in-, -ous, -ity; creed. 
SI. Caman, a. 8., t>> come; come, be-, wel-, mi-, -ly, -n< 
B2« ('lira, L., ca cur, ac-, in-, -ate, -acy, -ness, -able, »lve, 

-or; carious, cariosity; cure, sc-, In-, -ity; suit, a--, re-, en-, in-, 

-ty, -ance, -able. 

33. Curro, L., I run ; cur, con-, ex-, in-, oc-, -ence, -sion, -ent 
-ency; course, con-, dis-, inter-, re-, -ed, -ing, -er; cuss, dis-, 
in-, per-, -ive, -ion, -ist, or; courier, succor. 

34. Damnum, L., loss, harm; damn, -able, -at ion; dam, -age, 
-able; danger, -ous; demn, cou-, in-, -ation, -atory, -if v. -iiy, 
indemnification. 

35. Decern, L., ten; decim, -al, ate; decimo, duo-; Deceml 
decennial (annus); decemvirate (vir). 

36. Demos, G., the people; democrat; democracy , krat 
demogoixne: endemic; epidemic. 

37. Dens, L., a tooth; dent, in-, -ation, -al, -ist, -ure; denti- 
frice; edentata; trident; rodent: dandelion. 

38. Deor, A. S., dear; dear, en-, -er, -est ; darling; dearth. 

39. Deus, L., a god; de, -ify, -ist, -ism, -ic, -al, -ity: divine, 
-ation, -ity; deification. 

40. Dico, L., I proclaim, I set apart; die, ab-, de-, in-, \ 
-ation, -ve, -or: index: predicament. 

41. Dico, L., I say; diet, ad-, bene-, contra-, e-, in-, -ate, -or, 
-ion, -ial; -ory, -ed, -ment; indite; dictionary. 

4*2. Dies, L., a day; di, -al, -ary; meridian, ante-, post-; di- 
urnal. 

43. Doceo, L., / teach; doc, -lie, -ity; doct, *or; document; 
doctrine, -al. 

44. Dom, A. 8., judgment; doom, -ed; dooms-day. 

45. Drifan, a 8., to drUx ; drift, -ed, Ing; drift-wood; drire, 

-er. -ing. 

M. Drincan, A. 8., to drink; drink, -ing, -er; drunk, ml, 
drench, -ed, 

47. Dripan, A. 8. drip; drip, -ing; drop, -ed, Ing; droop, 
-ed, -ing; dribble ; driv 1. 

48. Dneo, L., / lead, I bring forward; dace, ad , con , 
in-, super-, Intro-, pro-, re-, n -11 l< j dud. 
con., de-, -in. Intro-, pro , re-, -lie, -ion, -or, -ory, -iv< 

duet; viaduct (via). 



132 ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 

49. Duo, L., two; du, -al; duel, -ist; duplicate; duplicity; 
double; doubt, un-, -ful, -less, -ed; dubious. 

50. Durus, L., hard, lasting; dure, en-, ob-, -able, -ness, ability, 
-ance, -ate, -ion, -acy. 

51. Emo, L, I buy, I take; empt 9 ex-, per-, pre-, -ion, -ory; 
redeem; redemption. 

52. Eo, (it), L., I go, I pass; it, ex-, trans-, in-, -ion, -al, -ive, 
-ory; itinerant; ambition; initial; initiatory; transient. 

53. Esse, L., to be; ess, -ence; est, inter-, dis-, -ing, -ed; ent, 
abs-, non-, -ee, -ity; ence, abs-; present, omni-, re-, mis-, -ly, 
-ation, -ative ; quintessence. 

54. Facilis, L., easy; facile, -ity, -ate; difficult, -y. 

55. Facio, L., I make, or do; fact, -or, -ion; benefactor (bene); 
manufacture (manus) ; feet, af-, de-, ef-, in-, per-, im-, dis-, un-, 
-ation, -ion, -ing, -ate, -ed, -ive, -ual; fici, de-, ef-, of-, pro-, suf-, 
in-, -ent, -ency, -cial; deficit; officer; suffice; feature; fashion, 
-able. 

56. Faran, A. S., to go; fare -ed; farewell; ferry; ford, -ed; 
welfare. 

57. Fedan, A. S., to feed; feed; food; foster; father. 

58. Fendo, L., I keep off, I strike; fend, de-, of-, -er, -ant; 
fence, -er, -ing; fense, de-, in-, -less, -ible, -ive. 

59. Fero, (latum), L., I bear, I carry; fert, -ile, -ity, -ize; fer, 
circum-, con-, de-, dif-, in-, pre-, pro-, re-, suf-, trans-, -ence, -ent, 
-ed, -able, -ment, -ee, -ing; deferential; pestiferous; vociferous; 
late, col-, di-, e-, pre-, re-, super-, trans-, -ion, -ory, -ive. 

60. Figo, L., I fix, I join; fix, af-, pre-, suf-, trans-, -ture; 
crucifix. 

61. Fluo, L., I flow; fluo, af-, con-, in-, super-, -ent-, -ency, -id 
-ial, -ous, -ity; fluctuate, -ion; influx. 

62. Fortis, L., strong, brave; fort, com-, un-, ef-, -ify, -able, 
-less; force, en-, re-, -ible, -ment; fortress, fortitude; fortification. 

63. Fot, A. S., the foot; foot; fetter; fetlock. 

64. Frango, L., J break; fract, re-, -ion, -al, -ious, -ure; frag, 
-ile, -ment, -ary; frang, re-, ible; fring, in-, -ment: frail, -ty; re- 
frain. 

65. Frater, L., brother; fratern, -al, -ity, -ize; friar; fratri- 
cide. 

66. Frigis, L., cold; frig, -id, -ity; refrigerate, -ion, or. 



ROOTS AND rARONYMS. 133 

67. Fugio, L., I flee; fugit, -ive; fuge, re-, subter-, -co; centri- 
fugal. 

68. Fill, A. S., unclean; defile, -edj filth; foal; fulsome. 

69. Fundo, (fusom), L., / pour; fund, re- -ing, -ed; fuse, con-, 
dif-, ef-, in-, pro-, re-, snf-, trans-, -ible, -ion, -ive; futile; con- 
found; refute -at ion. 

70. Fyr, A. S., the fire; fire; fiery; fireworks; bonfire. 

71. Geard, A. S., an enclosure; yard; orchard; garden. 

72. Retail, A. S., to get; get, -ing; forget; got, en. 

73. Gifau, A. S., to give; give, for-, mis-, -ing; gave. 

74« Gradior, L., I xcalk; grade, de-, retro-, -ation; gress, ag-,' 
con-, di-, e-, in-, pro-, retro-, trans-, -ion, -or, -ive; gradu, under-, 
-al. -ate,- ation. 

75. Graf an, A. S., to dig; grave, en-, -er; graft, -ed, -ing; 
groove; grove; grub, -ed, ing. 

76. Gramma, G., a letter; gram, ana-, dia-, epi-, mono-, pro*, 
-ar, -ian; grammatical; telegram. 

77. Grapho, G., / write; graph, auto-, bio-, geo-, lexico-, lith-, 
ortho-. photo-, steno-, tele-, topo-, typo-, -y, -er, -ic. 

78. Gravis, L., heavy; grave, ag-, -ity, -ate, -ion; grieye, ag-, 
-ance, -ous; grief; gravitation. 

79. Hahhan, A. S., to possess; have, be-, -ing, -ior. 

80. Habeo, L., I have, I hold; habit, in-, re-, -able, -ant, -ation; 
hibit, ex-, pro-, -ion, -or; habiliment; able, en-, dis-, -ity. 

81. Heard, A. S., hard; hard, -en, -ship, -y; hardware. 

82. Hospes, EA, a host, aguest; host, -ess; hospit. in-, -al, -able, 
-ity; hostler; hotel. 

83. Jacio, L., / throw, I cast; jeet, al)-, ad-, coil-, de-, c-, in-, 
inter-, ob-, pro-, re-, sub-, -ure, -al, -ed, -ion, -ment, -able, -ive, -o^ 
-lie; ejaculate, -ion, -ory; jetty; jut. 

84. Jungo, L., I join; Janet, ad-, con-, dia-, in-, sub-, .ion, -nre, 
join, ad-, en-, con-, dis-, re-, enb-, -ed, -er ; rejoinder; conjug- 
al; conjugate, -ion; joint, -ed. 

•S."i. Jus, L., r'Kjia, law; just, in-, -ice, -ify, »ness; Jurist; justi- 
tion; Jurisdiction (diee); injure, -y, -one. 

m;. Kratos, O., 9trength t . crnt, aristo-, demo-, -ic; 

era, lemo-, t r 

s7. Lecgan, \. S . lay; lair: law; lea J ledge; lie; 

low; outlaw; lying. 



134 ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 

88. Lego, L., I gather, I read; leg, il-, e-, in-, ible-, ibility, -ant, 
-ance, -ion, -end; lect, col-, re-, -ec, e-, se-, ion, ic, -ive, or; dilig- 
ent; eligible; intellect, -ual; intelligent. 

89. Lex, L., law, a rule, leg, il-, -al, -ity, -ize; legislate 
(latum; see fero), -ion, -or, -nre; privilege, legitimate. 

90. Liber, L., free; liber, il-, -al, -ity, -ate, -or, -ty; deliver, 
-ance, -y. 

91. Litera, L., a letter; liter, il-, al-, ob-, -al, -ary, -ate, -ion, 
literature. 

92. Locus, L., a place; loc, dis-, col-, -al, -ize, -ity, -ate, -ion; 
locomotive. 

93. Logos, L., a speech, a reason, a description; log, apo-, doxo-, 
etymo-, genea-, geo-, minera-, mytho-, ornitho-, philo-, phreno-, 
physio-, psycho-, tanto-, techno-, zoo-, -ic^ -al, -ian, -y, -ize, 
ist; logue, apo-, cata-, deca-, pro-. 

94. Lufe, A. S., love; love, un-, -able, -er, -ing, -ly, -est. 

95. Magnus, L., great, large, grand; magni, -fy, -tnde; 
magnificent (f acio) ; magnanimous (anima) ; major, -ity, majesty ; 
mayor; magistrate; master. 

96. Mando, L., I command, I commit; mand, com-, de-, -ate, 
-ory, -er, -ment; mend, com- re-, -able, -ing; commendatory. 

97. Manus, L., the hand; manu, -al; manuscript (scribo) ; 
manufacture (facio), -ed, -er, -ing; manufactory; manipulate, 
-ion, -or; mana, -cle; emancipate (capio), -ion, -or. 

98. Mater, L., a mother; matri, -mony, -al; matron, -ly; 
maternal; maternity. 

99. Memini, L., I remember, memor, com-, im-, -able, -ate, 
-ion, -ive, -ial, -ize, -y; remember; memorandum. 

100. Metron, G. 5 a measure; metr, dia-, geo-, sym-, -ic, -al, -ian, 
-y; mete; meter, dia-, gas- or gaso-; aneometer; oarometer; 
hexameter; hydrometer; hygrometer; perimeter; thermometer; 
trigonometry. 

101. Migro, L., / move from one place to another; migr, em-, 
im-, trans-, -ate, -ion, -ory, -ant. 

102. Mitto, L., I send, I let go; mit, ad-, com-, de-, e-, inter-, o-, 
per-, re-, sub- trans-, -ance, -ee, -ent, -ed; mis, ad-, com-, inter-, o-, 
pre-, pro, re-, sub-, -ible, -ion, -ed, -er, -ary, -ible, -ile, -ive; com- 
promise; surmise. 

103. Mona, A. S., the moon; moon; Monday; month. 



ROOTS AM) PARONYMS. 135 

10-1. Moneo, T,., Tremtndt T warn; monit, ad-, pre-, -ion, -or, -y, 
•lal; monu, -ment, -al; moii, ad-, pre-, -ish, -er; summons* 

105. Monos, G., alone; monk; monastery; monomania; mon- 
opolize; monosyllable; monotheism; monotone; monotonous; 
monotony. 

106. Mors, L., death; mort, Im-, -ul, -ize, -ify; mortification; 
mortuary; murder, -er, -ons. 

107. Moveo, L., / move; mov, im-, -able; move, re-, -ment, -er; 
mot, com-, e-, pro-, -ion, -al, -less, -ive, -or, -er; promote; remote,/ 
-ness; mobile; momentum. 

108. Mynd, A. S., the mind; mind, re-, -ful. 

109. Xavis, L., a ship; nav, -al, -y; navigate (ago), -ed, -or; 
navigable, circum-. 

110. Xomen, L., a name; noinin, de-, -al, -ate, -ion, -ee, -or; 
misnomer: cognomen; pronoun. 

111. Humerus, L., a number; nnmer, e-, in-, -al, -ate, -ion, -ic, 
-ons, -able; number; supernumerary. 

112. Nuncio, L., I announce; nnnci, de-, e-, pro-, ate, -ion; 
nounce, an-, de-, pro-, re-, -able, -ment. 

113. Ode, G., a poem, an ode; melody, -ons; parody, prosody; 
Psalmody; rhapsody- 

114. Ordo, L., order, rank; ordin,co-, extra-, in-, pre-, sub-, -ate, 
-ion, -ance, -ary; ordain; order, -ly. 

115. Fan, G. f all, the whole; panacea ; pancreas; pandemonium; 
paneg anorama; pantheism; pantomime. 

116. Paro, L., T prepare, I get ready ; pare, com-, pre-, ln-,-ative, 
■. -ation, -atory; apparel; repair; comparison; separate, in , 

- 

117. Pars, L., a part, a share; part, a-, com-, counter-, de-, im-, 
-ed, -ial.-iiy, -ment, -uiv, -y« partner; participate, -ion; particle; 
particular, -ize; partisan; partition. 

118. Pater, L., a father; pater, -nal; paternity; patron, -• 
-ize; patriot, com-, -ic, -ism; patrician; patrimony; 

-ion . 
111). Pathos, G., suffering, feeling; pathetic, sym- : pathol 

(logos); allopathy, -ic; homeopathy; -ic, apathy: antipathy; 
sympathy, - 

120. Pello, L., I drive; pel. Com-, dl pro-, re-; pulse 

com-, ex-, im-, re-, -ate, -ion, -ory, - 



136 ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 

121. Pendeo, L., / hang; pend, ap-, de-, in-, -ant, -ing, -age, 
-ence, -ent; appendix; pendulum; suspense; -ion; pensile. 

122. Pendo, L., to weigh, to pay; pend, com-, ex-, -iture; sti- 
pend; pense, com-, dis-, in-, ex-, recom-, -ate, -able, -ive, -ion, -er, 
-ary. 

123. Pes, L., the foot; ped, bi-, ex-, im-, -al, -ient, -iency, -ite, 
-ion, -ious, -iment, -ler, pedestrian; quadruped. 

124. Peto, L., I attack, I seek; pete, com-, in-, -ent, -ence; cen- 
tripetal; petit, com-, re-, -ion, -er, -or; petulant; impetus; im- 
petuous; impetuosity. 

125. Philos, G., a friend, a lover; philosophy, -er, -ic, -al; 
Philadelphia; philanthropy; philology (logos); philharmonic. 

126. Phusis, G., nature; phys, meta-, -ic, -al, -ian, physiology 
(logos), -ist; physiognomy, -ist. 

127. Polis, G., a city; police, -man; policy; politic, -al, -ian, 
-s; polity; metropolis; micropolis; cosmopolitan. 

128. Pono, L., I place; pone, com-, de-, op-, post-, -ent, -ment, 
pose, com-, de-, dis-, ex-, im-, in-, inter-, op-, pro-, pur-, re-, sup-, 
trans-, -er, -ite, -or, -ure, -al; posite, com-, de-, dis-, ex-, -im, inter-, 
op-, pro-, sup-, -ion-, -or, -ary, -ory; juxtaposition; compound, -ed, 
-ing; post, com-, im-, -age. 

129. Porto, L., J carry; port, ex-, im-, pur-, re-, sup-, in-, 
trans-, -ance, -ant, -ation, -able, -er; portune, im-, op-, -ity; 
portfolio ; portmanteau. 

130. Prehendo, L., I lay hold of, I seize; prehend, ap-, com-, 
re-, -ed; prehense, ap-, com-, re-, -ion, -ive, -ible; comprise; 
enterprise; surprise; prison; reprieve. 

181. Probo, L., I try, I prove; prob, im-, ap-, dis-, rep-, -able, 
-ability, -ation, -ary, -ity, -ate; prove, ap-, dis-, im-, re-, -al, 
-ment, -ing; reproof. 

132. Reafian, A. S., to seize; bereave; rive; rob, -er; rove. 

133. Rego, L., Irule; reg, -al, -ent, -ency; regulate; regicide; 
regiment; regular; -ity; regalia; rect, cor-, di-, e-, in-, -ly, -ion, 
-ify, -or; rectitude; incorrigible; reign. 

134. Ridan, A. S., to ride; ride, -er, -ing, road; roadster. 

135. Rnmpo, L., J break; rupt, ab-, cor-, in-, dis-, e-, inter-, 
ir-, un-, -ly, -ness, -ible, -ion, -ed; bankrupt, -cy. 

136. Sceofan, A. S., to push; shove; shovel; scuffle; shuffle; 
sheaf. 



j &, 

>ka rr/r/y ■/( yrrrr~ rr r/r t >■ > /•), '/; rr j r / r ft 

* -€s//r c/rr A- } . f'r / rr r / r / rr- j j r // r /r j rV / /r/.< 
/< :j , rr Jtr/ c ■ 

"ccjr/t/e co- (}(.)/*( Jrczeuce, (2* Acrj, /& 
>y Jrri : cced. 
/rrrrr /rm i<n /A r rur/r/ry r/ C^ffc I Jrrd. 



//<?.)/ f/r-'r yrrrU, /rr/ rr/rrr/ /rr 
■;r Ar r >r/< '■■ ) jjr rr/ ■/) r r rf / rj r/r.irr'r / '■ 

¥ 



<r ;rr/ r/.l//r jr.it 



i 






y </f r rr- // \ -j j r ft ■> /r.l/r- 

/ / 

f > rr rr r/ rr /•/ A /// . 



y ' r // /'rr r r r 4 



U > ''r //// , 

y ;r. 



138 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Ala., 


Alabama. 


A. Ter. 


, Arizona Territory 


Ark., 


Arkansas. 


Cal., 


California. 


Col., 


Colorado. 


Conn., 


Connecticut. 


D. C, 


District of Columbia. 


Del., 


Delaware. 


Fla., 


Florida. 


tia., 


Georgia. 


111., 


Illinois. 


Ind., 


Indiana. 


Ind. Tei 


•., Indian Territory. 


I. Ter., 


Idaho Territory. 


la., 


Iowa. 


N. M., 


New Mexico. • 


N.Y., 


New York. 


N. D., 


North Dakota. 


o., 


Ohio. 


Or., 


Oregon. 


Penn., 


Pennsylvania. 


B. I., 


Rhode Island. 


o. ^«, 


South Carolina. 


S. D., 


South Dakota. 


Tenn., 


Tennessee. i 


Mex., 


Mexico. J 


Jan., 


January. 


Feb., 


February. 


Mar., 


March. 


Apr., 


April. 


May, 


May. 


Jun., 


June. 


Agt., 


Agent. 


A nit.. 


Amount. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 

Kan., 

Ky., 
La., 

Mass., 

Me., 

Md., 

Mich., 

Minn., 

Miss., 

Mo., 

M. Ter., 

N. C, 

Neb., 

Nev., 

N. H., 

N. J., 

Tex., 

U. Ter., 

Ya., 

Yt., 

Wis., 

Wy. Ter 

Wash. 

W. Ya., 

Ont., 

P.Q., 



Kansas. 
Kentucky. 
Louisiana. 
Massachusetts. 
Maine. 
Maryland. 
Michigan. 
Minnesota. 
Mississippi. 
Missouri. 

Montana Territory. 
North Carolina. 
Nebraska. 
Nevada. 

New Hampshire. 
New Jersey. 
Texas. 

Utah Territory. 
Virginia. 
Vermont. 
Wisconsin. 
, Wyoming Territory. 
Washington. 
West Virginia. 
Ontario, Canada. 
Province of Quebec 



Jul., July. 

Aug., August. 

Sept., September. 

Oct., October. . 

Nov., November. 

Dec, December. 

Disct., Discount. 

Hon., Honorable. 



L ETTE R-WK1 T I NG. 

The essential parts of a letter are the Heading, the 
Address, the Salutation, the Body and the Subscrip- 

The Heading consists of the name of the place at which the 

letter is written and the date. If ruled paper is used, the heading 

•itten on the first line of it; if unruled, it is written one and a 

half or two inches from the top of the page, beginning a little t«» 
the left of the middle of the page. 

MODELS OF HEADINGS. 

Model 1. 

Model 2. 

Model 



The Address 3 of the name ofl on written to and 

In tfhich be lives, it should be written ■ 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

line or two below the heading, near the left side of the page, and 
a little to the right of the body of the letter. 



MODELS OF ADDRESS. 

Model 1. 

Model 2. 



<t . jJS'd'fls'l'l 



Model 3. 
Model 4. 



LETTER-WRITING. 141 

flfodel 5. 

3 i . — 



Other forms of address will be required according to circum- 
stances, varying with the persons addressed and the terms of inti- 
macy that exist. The following are some of those now in general 

Dr. Hugo Aider; Hugh M. Wright, M. D.; Joseph Goodwin, I). I). 
LL. D.; Mr. Walter F. Mc Entire; W. P. Macklin, Esq.; B. C. 
Baldwin, LL. D. ; Rev. H. J. Davis, or Rev. Mr. Davis. 

The form of Salutation used depends upon the intimacy of the 
writer with the person addressed. Sir and Madam Indicate g 
formality. Dear Sir and Dear Madam are the forms in general 
r Mr. Holden and My dear Mrs. Hamilton are forms 
implying greater intimacy. 

The following are in general use: Dear Mr. Dodd, My dear Mr. 
: Dear Friend, My dear Friend; Sir, Dear Sir, My dear Sir; 
9, Gentlemen; Madam, Dear Madam, My dear Madam, Ladi 

The title Eon. Is applied to pers >ns holding high governmental 
positions; His Excellency Is applied to the President of the United 
States and to State Governors. 

The Body of the letter follow- the salutation, it should be 

commenced on the next line below and a little to the right of It. 

B is 9« l( tt< 3 should be brief, and to the point. Friendly cor- 

ondence requirt - an easy, familiar style, for the acquisition of 

which the study of good models will be very useful. 

The first line of the body of a letter is, probably, the mosi hu- 
nt, and for that reason a fen models are here presented : 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. I am in receipt of yours, etc. 

2. Yours of the 16th inst. is just received, etc. 

3. Your favor of the 3d inst. is received, etc. 

4. Your esteemed favor of the 10th inst. is at hand, etc. 

5. Yours of the 18th has remained unanswered until nuw, etc. 

SUPERSCRIPTION. 
Model 1. 



Model 2. 



<&fa 



The Superscription consists of the name and address as written 
on the envelope. This should be written neatly and plainly. 
When writing to a person living at or near a small town or village, 
the name of the county should be given. When writing to a per- 
son in the city, the street and residence number should be given. 

The Subscription, like the salutation, depends, for its form, 
upon the intimacy of the parties corresponding. The following- 
are a few of the various forms used: 

Faithfully yours; Bespectfully yours; Truly yours; Yours truly; 
Very truly yours; Your obedient servant; Your obedient humble serv- 
ant; As ever, your friend; Ever affectionately yours; Yours affec- 
tionately; Yours cordially, etc. 



LETTER- WRITING. 1 13 

Official Letters have a more stately forma] close than any other. 
The following are approved forms — the first being in the diplo- 
matic style. 

I have the honor to bt , Sir, 

With the highest consideration , 

Tour obi du nt «< rvant t 

Alfred M. Wright. 

I hare the lumor to fi 0! 

With much r< speet, 

Your obedient servant, 

Conde J. Fallen. 

1 have the honor to be (or remai 

respectfully, 

Your most obedient servant, 

H nry F. Miller, 

I am, Sir, 

Your obedient servant, 

Walter II. Low/. 

A FEW REMARKS. 

Talleyrand said: " Never destroy a letter and never write one." 
Modifj this so much as relates to compromising yourself, it Is a 
good plan, when yon find yourself Impelled to write an angry let- 
ter, to destroy the first one you write and the second one The 
third or fourth will probably be Less unpleasant in its effects. 
The whole art and secret of letter-writing is to write preci 
as yon speak; kn<>w exactly what you hav« i<> say and fray it 
commodate your Language to the capacity of your correspondent. 
I your letters tending. Make this an Imperative rule, 

ork will Leave your bands. Write nothing 
a would >ur correspondent. 

3 of little importance should he answered without delay. 
In ii. moment, of course a certain amount ol ttiou 

i Id be \i^<<\. 
Let i : t and terse as on 

lions. I 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the fewest number of words. Use the shortest words that will 
express your meaning. 

The paper and envelopes used is a matter of taste, and some- 
times, in a degree, show the status of the writer. When possible, 
use fine paper, always a whole sheet, and envelopes of a fitting 
size to avoid many folds in the paper. 

I Never write a private letter on foolscap paper; to do so is awk- 
ward, clumsy, and generally inexcusable. 

Never send a half-sheet letter, except on business ; and never 
send less than a half-sheet under any circumstances. For a 
private letter, even if you write only two or three lines, use a 
whole sheet. 

No color is more tasteful than white, for any kind of letter, and 
a gentleman should use no other. 

Unruled paper is to be preferred, but without a violation of 
good taste, ruled paper may be used. Any one by diligent prac- 
tice may learn to write straight without a guiding line, and the 
ability to do so is a valuable acquirement. 

A letter requesting an answer for the exclusive benefit of the 
writer, should be accompanied by a stamp for return postage; or, 
still better, an envelope addressed and stamped. 



A LETTER. 



To be loritten: 



Write a letter dated to-day, at No. 37 Olive St., Cleveland, 
addressed to Mr. G. M. Bowers, Principal, Metropolitan Business 
College, in answer to the following questions: 1. When and 
where were you born? 2. How was your early life spent, and 
what were your school advantages? 3. What school did you last 
attend? 4. What studies did you there pursue? 5. Did you 
graduate? 6. When did you leave that school? 7. Have you had 
any experience in business of any kind, and if so what? 8. 
What is your purpose in attending this College? 9. How long 
do you expect to attend? 10. How many hours each day can you 
devote to study at home? 



LETTER- WRITING. b45 

/ r^ t 

Qo« " / ■ ><' 3 • 'O 

(5^ « - ^ / < / «/ 

i I ."// 6 

/ /'-(' n>o 'itcwa/e lit r/f.-j//f.&'.;r; r/ / . 

but -/Ae <//*■''■ 
( '' rzericl ^e^L€-L mi -1/lc < f ■ (y% 

' ■' > fvfiO'Le cn.L sCttzco 

125 barrels Apples, No. 1, at $1.50 $187 50 

11 " No. 2, at $.75 18.75 

•") " Quinces, at $3.50 L7 50 

Fall Tears, al Si. CD 

81.75 
Freight on car. $62.00 

Cartage 12 50 

jion on sales 11. 

Insurance 1.17 

ge 17 



A mom:! due consignor $12 

/ 

\ 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Each of these letters should be made a study — repeatedly read 
and copied. The relative positions of the Heading, Address, Salu- 
tation and Subscription to the body of the letter and to each other, 
as well as the punctuation of different parts, should be carefully 
observed. 

Suggestion. — The great educational and literary value of letter-writ- 
ing should give it a more prominent place in a model course of study than it 
generally occupies. Teachers should to a great extent, substitute this exer- 
cise for the writing of ordinary " compositions." They will thus secure 
greater ease and freedom of expression than by the old method, and will at 
the same time give their pupils a practical acquaintance with the forms and 
peculiarities of letters. 

Punctuation. — A comma should be placed after every item of the 
heading, address and subscription, except the last, where a period is 
used. 

QUOTING PRICES. 



ttdfo'W'&t «-, 



4, : 

^td€. 






■a.-t-e 



■dw£u> -tx / l€i'£ej£u / L. 






%£& tyo-'M fe / it,€,e>d aw '&u,-C'?i<£&d J &-6-C., 



&,d f&'L't'C <U*d .' 



LETTER-WRITING 11" 



X. C. lk champion " Trace C plate at.. . . 
" " (Japanned at . 

$ inch ' 4 Kangaroo "at 

I " 

1 " " u 

| Barrel Roller at. 

No. 44 Ring Bolts (stiff or joint i 

No.33 " " " " 

No. 171 Half Snaffle. 

No. 23 " ' 



Doping to receive your order soon, we remain, 

Yours trery truly, 





per dozen 


1.76 


i. ii 


75 


per | 




. < 


L.25 


per dozen. 




14 II 


.46 






. . 


.90 


t ( <( 


L.10 


ii (i 


Wm. 


(\ con. 



Punctuation. — The salutation in a letter should befollor 
comma and dash. The colon (;) as well as the colon and > ~ 
it son ised, 

<$/ y ' . cJktr<; £f, /6ft 



/ /// 

J2? evince ?nf 



v<6 A<z<ue, o+i 






148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

10 cars, No. 1, D & E, 400 12 ft., 400 14, 700 16, 100 18, 

100 20 , $20.00 

5 " No. 1,D &E, 300 14, 300 16, 100 18, 100 20 18.00 

10 " No. 2, R. F., 150 12, 150 14, 150 16 3 9.00 

10 " " Bds. Sis., 1000 10 ft, 5000 12, 5000 14 18.50 

5 " " Fencing Sis., J 12, J 14, J 16. 19.00 

6 " No. 1, Drop Sliding, 3000 12 ft., 8000 16 22.00 

10 " 4| Lath 4.00 

10 " XXX Shingles. 3.70 

If yon can use any of the above cars, please let us know at once 
so that we may forward same immediately. 

Hoping you will favor us with a good order, we remain, 

Yours truly, 

O. M. Powers & Co. 

Direction.— Write a letter similar to the foregoing to Mr. Walter A. 
Wright, Little Rock, Ark. Note the punctuation of the heading, the address, 
the salutation and the subscription. 

A COMPLAINT. 

Mr. R. L. Hood, 

Memphis, Tenn. 
Dear Sir,— 

I am compelled for the first time in a long connection 
with your house, to complain of the quality of the goods forwarded 
to me per last steamer. They were so carelessly packed that much 
of the crockery was broken. The glass and china are very infer- 
ior to the last sent at the same price. Unless my orders can be 
filled more efficiently, I shall be compelled to deal with another 
house. 

Very respectfully, 

T. R. Winston. 

Direction.— Write a letter similar to the foregoing to Geo . H. Brown, 
Louisville, Ky. Suppose yourself to be a dealer in hardware, glass, paints, 
oils, cutlery, etc., instead of glass and china ware. 

Punctuation. — Transposed and parenthetical words, phrases and 
clauses are usually set off by commas; as, Doubtless, this man is 
guilty. 



composition L49 



LANGUAGE L ESS< >NS. 

Many of the commonesl errors in Language can hardly be re- 
ferred to rules of syntax. They are violations of good taste, die- 
tiou and logic. A systematic discussion and correction of the 
sentences in this series of lessons will serve to cultivate the I 
and the powers of expression, and to give thestudem a knowledge 
of correct language even though his knowledge of grammar maj 
be quite limited. 

Explanation.— a word in tfatfc« will occasionally point oat an error. I 
figure at the end of a line win sometimes indicate the rule violated i 

air only incidental. however. The Btudent Is expected to discover the < 
and correct it even when lie finds it necessary to reconstruct the ruth' 

tence. 



ERRORS IN LANGUAGE, 

Correct the following sentences, and (five the r 
Hon: 

1. We cannot do no more. 

2. I went direct to the place. 18. 

;;. The office r only discharged his duly. 

4. Be read only the book; he did not tear it. 

5. Nothing can just ify over an untruth. 

lie only read the book, not the notice of it. 

7. He was not able to pay the debt but in part. 

8. Be not dishonest, nor take advantage ot do one. 

Incorn ct. 

1. It la me. It Lfl I. 

2. Him and Iht went. ml -he went. 

n you and I. Between you and me. 

4. Lay down. '! d<»\\ n, '! 

". !i learned me arithmetic. He taught me arithmetic. 

Jane are wrong. Mary or Jane la wrong. 



150 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



ERRORS IN LANGUAGE. 

Correct the folloioing sentences, and explain why the correction is 
needed: 

1. Do not walk slow. 18. 

2. Bring them books to me. 

3. The plank is ten foot long. 

4. George can walk thirty mile a clay. 

5. William is an awful bad writer. 

6. We do not like those sort of people. 22. 

7. Henry is brighter than any of the pupils. 

8. Either of these four boys may be trusted. 



Incorrect. 

1. I didn't do nothing. 

2. Hain't he gone? 

3. I knowed what he done. 

4. I've got to get my lesson. 



Correct. 
I didn't do any thing. 
Hasn't he gone? 
I knew what he did. 
I must get my lesson. 



&4,'£/fz<n,</, (Cxi.; cj)<wi^'u6<£ /cf, ys^o. 






({£r-a<wi &4€&e / l -^^^ue^i 4(04 €4i<e j£&<C£o't<x= 



<U6€l'€Z<a'7'l 



^Cstd^-ez, 



3.60 

.90 


.90 


.l';> 


1.90 


COO 



LETTER-WRITING. 151 

4 lbs. Coffee C. Sugar at 5 cts $ .20 

9 " •' A " al 8 cts .72 

12 •• Brown Coffee at SO cts 

10 •• Oat Meal at :> cts 

in « Rice at 9 cts 

l box Starch at 25 cts 

19 boxes Matches at 10 cts 

l } boxes Soda Crackers at 3.00 

$U.47 
Hoping to receive your further orders, T am, 

Yours truly, 

W. D. Armstrong, 

No. 137 Olive si reek 



ERRORS IN LANGUAGE. 

Correct the following sentences, and explain why the correction is 

need> <L 

1. The birds fly very swift. 

2. Why does he not say nothing? 

3. That piece of furniture looks very finely. 
1. Willie only came to cause mischief. 

5. We have not accomplished but very little. 
<'.. Tell me whether lie will do it, or no. 

7. The two girls were nearly dressed alike. 

8. Neither Ik.' nor no one else can do that. 

Incorrect, rect* 

1. I- this 'ere yourn? [s I his your 

2. 'I IS hisn. Thai is his. 

,t home. she has gone home. 

4. When Where is It? 

:,. When I it at? Where did they gel it? 

Remnrk.-Twonr-ativcs m the same 161 



152 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



PRESENT FORMS. 


PAST FORM. 


I raise , 


He raises, 


I raised, 


I rise, 


He nses, 


I rose, 


I set. 


He sets, 


I se£, 


I sit, 


He site, 


I sat, 


I lay, 


He Za^/s, 


I to'c£, j 


I lie, 


He lies, 


I lay, | 



COMPLETE FORM. 

I have raised. 
I have risen. 
I have se£. 
I have sat. 
I have to'(2. 
I have lain. 

Raise is a transitive verb which requires an object to complete , 
its meaning. Raise means lift or cause to grow; raises, lifts, 
causes to grow; raised, lifted, caused to grow. 

Shall I raise my hat? My brother raised a crop of corn. He 
raises ducks and turkeys. You should have raised the window 

Direction.— Write ten sentences using a form of the verb raise in 
each. I raise; he raises; I raised; I have raised. (Page 94.) 

Rise is an intransitive verb, it requires no object. Rise means 
get up or ascend; rises, gets up or ascends; rose, got up or ascended; § 
have risen, have gotten up or have ascended. 

The birds rise in the air. The sun has risen above the clouds. 
We rise early in the morning. He rises early. Henry ro.se early 
yesterday. 

Direction. — Write ten sentences using some form of the verb rise in 
each. I rise; he rises; I rose; I have risen. 



ERRORS IN LANGUAGE. 

Correct the following sentences, and explain why the correction is 
needed. 

1. I seen him do it myself. 

2. Henry begun well, but ended badly. 

3. The learning any thing well requires application. 

4. My brother could not have wrote that letter. 

5. Anna wastes her time in reading of novels. 

6. We saw that carriage while crossing the street. 

7. Henry and George could not have went to school. 

8. Relieving the distressed should be a great pleasure. 



LETTER-WRITING. 153 

Remark.— Id connection with the work in this section it will be found 
advantageous \ review the irregular verbs on page 94. 

Incorrect. Correct. 

1. 'Taint right. It isn't right. 

2. Apples Is wire Apples are Dice. 

8. He don't like them. He does not like them. 

I. Where are you going to? Where are you going? 

5. This is different to that. This is different from that. 



/' / i t(-'- a*zd td €i^t ritz.'tid. ' (cd/e- dwtfe dci / yyie 
<to.= '/ ( r/.tzm d (fA&j^'i-edd . 

20 boxes Apples, at $.50 $10.00 

5 barrels Old Apples, at $o\00 30.00 

60 bunches Yellow Bananas, at $1.50 DO. CO 

20 bunches Culls (including over-ripe fruit ), at $.75 15.00 

5 bunches Red Bananas, Firsts, at $2.50 12.50 

" " " .CulN, at $1.00 5.00 

" Seconds, at $1.50. 7.50 



&<Mt 



$170.00 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Direction.— Write ten sentences using some form of the verb rise in 
each. I rise; he rises; I rose; I have risen. 

Set is a transitive verb, which requires an object to complete its 
meaning. Set means place or put; Sets, places or puts. 

I set the ink bottle on your desk; that is, I placed the ink bottle 
on your desk. He has set the lamp on your table. Hilda set the 
child on the bench where it now sits. George set the box on the 
grass where it now sits. The boy set the hen. The hen sits. 

Direction. — Write six sentences using a form of the verb set in each. 
I set; he sets; I set; I have set. 

Sit is an intransitive verb. The word sit means rest; sits means 
rests; sat means rested. 

William sits in a chair. He sat in a chair yesterday. The boy 
has rested in a chair since noon. The cat sits on the bench. Your 
dog sat on the bench last night. We have sat here long enough. 
The pitcher sits where you set it yesterday. 

Direction.— Write ten sentences using a form of the word sit in each 
I sit; he sits; I sat; I have sat; I had sat. (Page 95.) 

Lay is a transitive verb. The word lay means place or put ; 
laid means placed or put; have laid means have placed or have put. 

I lay my book on the desk. I laid my hand on the window. 
I have laid my books on your desk several times. You had laid 
your things on the table before we arrived. 

Direction. — Write eight sentences using, if possible, a different form of 
the verb lay in each. I lay; he lays; I laid; I have laid; I had laid; he 
had laid. 

Lie is an intransitive verb. The word lie means rest or recline; 
lies m<eans rests or reclines; lay means rested or reclined. 

The men lie on the grass. He lies on the lounge now. He lay 
on the lounge all last night. He has lain on the lounge day after 
day for weeks. He had lain on the floor before I arrived. The 
blocks lie on the box. The block lies on the box. 

Direction. —Write eight sentences using, if possible, a different form 
of the verb lie in each. I lie; he lies; I lay; I have lain; he has lain; they 
have lain. 



COMPOSITION. 155 

PROSE COMPOSITION. 

Prose Composition is the term applied to all classes 
of composition which are not written in verse. 

Among the varieties of prose composition are 
Letters, Editorials, Essays, Reviews, Treatises, His- 
tory, Fiction. 

A Letter is a communication in writing addressed by the 
writer to some other person. 

An Editorial is the published opinion of the editor of 
a newspaper on the current topics of the day. 

Remark. —Whatever knowledge, wit or wisdom is displayed by the 
paper, is supposed to exist in that unseenoracle who sits veiled behind the 
mysterious ' ; We." 

An Essay is a formal discourse on some subject which it 

treats at length in a systematic manner. 

Remark. - An essay, in form, is impersonal; but, when the writer finds 
it necessary to introduce himself, he does it in the singular, " I," not in the 
editorial •■ We." 

A Review is a lengthy editorial. It is generally an article 
of many pages, giving the opinions of a monthly or quarterly 
magazine, instead of a brief article in a daily or weekly paper. 

Reviews, like editorials, embrace almost every variety of sub- 
ject. They are commonly, though not always, based on some 
book. 

A Treatise is a written discourse or composition on some 
Bubj< ting forth its principles in a systematic and or- 

derly manner. 

Treatises differ from essays mainly in being more formal and 
itific. They are more frequently divided than essays are, into 
i ipters, sect Ions, and sub-sections. 

History is a record of important events for the instruc- 
tion of mankind. The fundamental qualities in compositions 
of this class are accuracy, impartiality, and fidelity. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

That record of events, momentous and important, which enables 
us to apply the transactions of former ages for our own instruc- 
tion, and that alone, is entitled to the name, history. 

Memoirs are a species of historical composition, though 
not strictly constituting history. 

Remark. — The writer of memoirs does not pretend to give a complete 
account of transactions, but only to relate such portions as those with which 
he himself was in some way connected. 

Biography is the history of one individual; it is, there- 
fore, a species of historical composition. 

Biography differs from history proper, not only in being thus 
limited in range, but also in being less stately and formal. In this 
respect biography corresponds with memoirs, descending to the 
particulars of private life. 

A Fiction is a composition made up of incidents which 
are the product of the imagination and are invented for the 
purpose. 

The names most commonly given to works of fiction are Novels ' 
and Romances. These terms are for the most part used indis- 
criminately, though romances more strictly mean a class of fiction 
in which the manners, incidents, and sentiments are of a rather 
extravagant character. 

Historical Novels are those in which the events of his- 
tory are related and historical persons are represented as 
speaking and acting. 

Remark. — The historical novel may be made very interesting, but it is 
very unsafe as a guide in history. The facts are shaped to suit the story, 
instead of the story to suit the facts. 

STYLE. 

Certain peculiarities of individual minds appear in 
their respective styles of composition and give rise to 
what is known as varieties in style. 



COMPOSITION. 157 

The properties which every good style should pos- 
sess are Purity, Propriety, Precision, Clearness, 
Strength, Harmony, and Unity. 

Purity consists in the use of such words, idioms and 
constructions as properly belong to our language. 

Purity may be violated by the use of obsolete words, newly-coined 
words, foreign words aud provincial words. Violatious of the 
rules of syntax are also violations of purity. 

Propriety consists in avoiding vulgarisms, in choosing 
correctly between words formed from the same radical, and 
in employing words only in such acceptations as are author- 
ized by good usage. 

Vulgarisms are out of place in every variety of composition. 
Colloquialisms are proper enough in conversation but not suffi- 
ciently dignified for written composition. 

Precision consists in the use of such words as convey 
precisely the meaning intended and nothing more. 

Precision is generally violated by a want of discrimination in 
the use of synonymous terms: Caesar displayed courage, not forti- 
tude on the battlefield. 

Clearness or Perspicuity consists in such a use and ar- 
rangement of words, phrases and clauses as at once dis- 
tinctly indicate the meaning of the writer. 

Other things being equal, the greater the Purity, Propriety and 
Precision <>f a sentence the clearer it will be. Equivocation, Am- 
biguity and Obscurity are faults opposed to Clearness. 

Strength consists in such a use and arrangement ot words 
as make a deep impression on the mind of the reader or 
bearer. 

Thf strength ot a sentence may be enhanced by rejecting all 
superfluous words, by never closing with a preposition or any 
small word, and by arranging its members bo that the shorter or 
weaker stand before the longer or more important. 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Harmony is a rhetorical term used to denote that smooth 
and easy flow of language which pleases the ear. 

Harmony consists in the use of euphonious, or pleasant-sound- 
ing words, the euphonious arrangement of words, and the adapta- 
tion of the sound to the sense which it is used to express. 

Tautology consists of the repetition of a sound by employing 
the same word more than once in a sentence, or by using in con- 
tiguous words, similar combinations of letters, either of which 
serves to destroy harmony. 

Unity consists in the restriction of a sentence to one 
leading proposition, modified only by such accessories as 
are materially and closely connected with it. 

A sentence may consist of parts but these must be so bound 
together as to convey to the mind the impression of one fact, and 
but one. Avoid long parentheses and do not crowd into a sentence 
things which have no logical connection. 



INVENTION. 

Invention is the process of developing thought in connection 
with any particular theme. It is this that furnishes the material 
of composition, and upon this, in a great measure, its value de- 
pends. 

At first, and in fact always, outline the subject before undertak- 
ing to write the composition. 

The preparation of this outline is the very essence of invention. It sets 
the pupil at once to thinking — to gathering thoughts instead of putting to- 
gether mere words. The outline, therefore, should be a leading portion of 
the exercise, and should in each case be submitted to the teacher for inspec- 
tion and comment, before the composition is written. 

Suppose that Anger is selected as the theme for a composition. 
Such questions as the following at once suggest themselves to the 
student and are written down : 

1. What is Anger? 2. What are its visible effects? 3. How does a person 
feel when his fit of passion has subsided? 4. What are its usual effects on 



159 

individuals? 5. To what may the angry man be compared? 6. Morally 
*king,wha1 Is the character of this passion? 

These are only a lew of the questions that may be asked. In 
them we find the germ of the composition, and from them we con- 
struct an outline like the following: 

1. Definition of anger. 

•2. Feelings produced by anger. 

3. Effects on those about us. 

4. Moral character of anger. 

5. Methods of controlling the passion. 

AMPLIFICATION. 

The analytical outline of the theme completed, the next step is 
amplification. This consists in enlarging on the thoughts pre- 
sented in the outline. Each topic may be repeatedly enlarged 
upon, and the whole composition rewritten several times, and at 
each writing new and appropriate additional matter may be intro- 
duced until one complete and consistent whole has been produced. 
The first topic of the subject, Anger, may be amplified thus ■ 

1. Anger is a passion. 

_'. Anger is a strong passion or emotion. 

Anger is a strong passion or emotion of the mind excited by a real or 
3ed injury. 

4. Anger Kfl a keen displeasure, a strong passion or emotion of the mind 
ed by a real or supposed injury and usually accompanied with a desire 
to punish. 

THEMES FOR COMPOSITION. 

l. friendship. -• Composition. 

3. Good English. L Importance of Correctness. 

bools, Pnblic and Private. 6. Comfort for the Dances. 
7. His ords. 8. My favorite Study. 

ii School. io. School a Manufactory 

u. Grade 12. Errors In the use of English. 

IS. i School Life. 14. The School- master Abroad 

IB. , i»;. The Delsarte Bj stem. 



160 iNGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PKONUNCIATION. 

Orthoepists and great linguists do not all agree in the pronuncia- 
tion of certain vocal elements in our language. The shades of 
difference, though slight, are, in some instances, worthy of notice. 

A as in blast, mast, far, staff, ask. 

Many of our most eminent scholars give to the vowel in words 
of this class the sound of a as in and. Another large class of 
speakers give in such words the sound of a as in arm. Those 
who prefer the first as the proper quality of the element should 
avoid the drawl or thin, prolonged sound which is sometimes 
given to it. Some eminent orthoepists regard this vowel as of an 
mtermediate quality between a as in and and a as in arm. 
A as in fare, or e as in there. 

The most eminent scholars on both sides of the Atlantic give to 
ae vowel a or e in words of this class the sound of long a de- 
prived of its vanishing element e as heard in pay and say. This 
practice is better observed by Englishmen than by Americans. In 
the United States a somewhat lengthened form of a as in and, al- 
though not sanctioned by the Dictionaries, is more commonly 
given to words of this class. The sound occurs only before r, and 
should be closely blended with the sound of u as in urn, which is 
heard before r in the pronunciation of such words. 

The compound long vowel sound, generally'indicatedjby u, as in 
use, begins with the consonant y and ends with oo. 

This is the sound heard in the words unit, cube, mute, educate 
etc. Bat when the compound vowel u, or its equivalent, in a 
monosyllable or an accented syllable, follows t, d, I, n, s, th or j, 
the initial element is slighted so as to become a very brief and 
indistinct sound of i asm ill; as in tune, duke, lunar, nude, suit, 
enthusiast, jewel . 

When a short sound of o occurs before ss, st, th, or the sound 
off, as in cross, cost, broth, soft, cough, and in some cases before 
ng, as in long, strong, it is the practice of the best speakers to give 
to the o a medium sound between o as in on and a as in fall. 



PROM N< IATIOX. 1()1 

Many speakers in England give to e, e<t, I and //, in a few words 
(as herd, earth, girl> myrtle) whose vowel element is commonly 
pronounced as m in urn, a sound very nearly like that of e as in end: 
but this distinction is very generally disregarded in this country. 

EXERCISES IN PRONUNCIATION. 

1. Do not pronounce otr like ur or tilt ; as hol'lw tor hol'low ; shad'duh for 

sltu'dotr. 

Pronounce, Pil'low, yel'low, to-mor'row, bor'row, wid'ow, 
fel'low, nar'row, swal'lowiug, mel'lowing. 

2. Do not pronounce ess like iss; as hardniss for hardness. 

Pronounce, Harmless, good'ness, care'less, bold'ness, bad'- 
em'press, host'ess, full'ness, clear'ness, seam'stress. 

3. Do not pronounce el like U,et like it, or est Yikoist; as fu'il for Ju'el, 
bask' it for bask'et. 

Pronounce, Bush'el, cru'el, du'el, strongest, young'est, yet, get, 
mark'et, hatch'et, rack'et, rock'et, riv'nlet, hon'est, bold'est, larg'- 
est, small'est. 

4. Do not pronounce ent like mit, or ence like unce; as sil'unt for sil'ent, 
sent' mice for sent' ence. 

Pronounce, Expe'rieuce, snperintend'ence, pa'tieuce, six'pence, 
prn'dent. de'eent, mo'ment, gar'ment, mon'nment, government, 
superintendent, parliament. 

5. Do not use the sound of short u before a final m; as he'lum for helm, 
rhas'um for chasm. 

Pronounce, Whelm, worm, spasm, overwhelm, film, rhythm, 
phan'tasm, bap'tism, patriotism, elm. 

6. Do not sound sh before r like s; as srub for shrub, sinnk for shrink. 
Pronounce, Shroud, shriv'el, shred, shrunken, shriek, shrine. 

7. Do not omit the sound of r after a vowel as in arm. 

Pronounce, Pa'per, or'der, horse, warm, alarm'ing, dark, Start, 
hark, are, remark, chart, door. 

8. Do not omit the sound of d when preceded by n; as bun for band. 
Pronounce, Winds, stand, friends, defends', depends', de- 

mands', hand'ful, grandfather. 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. Do not omit the sound of d in the terminal letters Ids; as wilz for ivilds, 
felz for fields. 

Pronounce, Folds, holds, scolds, builds, scalds, unfolds', 
child's. 

10. Do not omit the sound of t when preceded by c hard in the same syl- 
lable ; as aJcs for acts, exak'ly for exact'ly. 

Pronounce, Tracts, facts, direct'ly, perfectly, com'pacts, in- 
spects', respects', inducts', instructs', correct'ly, ab'stractly. 

11. Do not suppress the vowel sounds in unaccented syllables : as ev'ry 
for ev'ery, his'try for Ms'tory. 

Pronounce, Sev'eral, part'iciple, belief, crock'ery, fam'ily, fa'- 
vorite, des'perate, des'olate, nom'inative, mis'ery, li'brary, sal'ary, 
com'pany, com'fortable, perfum'ery, mem'ory, vic'tory, slip'pery. 

12. Do not suppress the sound of e or of i before I or n in those words in 
which it should be articulated. 

Pronounce, Hov'el, nov'el, par'cel, bar'rel, trav'el, quar'rel, 
sor'rel, pen'cil, chick'en, sat'in, mit'ten, lin'en. 

13. Do not sound e or i before n or I in the following words in which it is 
silent. • 

Pronounce, Heav'en, ha'ven, ba'sin, sev'en, hazel, gold'en, e'vil, 
o'pen, wid'en, fro'zen, wood'en, short'en, wak'en. 

14. Give to the vowel a in the unaccented terminal syllables al, ant, ance, 
its short sound, but do not make it prominent. 

Pronounce, Na'tional, par'tial, fi'nal, eter'nal, ig'norant, ty'- 
rant, in'stant, fla'grant, vig'ilance, ig'norance, in'stance, fra'grance. 

15. Do not give to long o, when unaccented and slightly abridged, the 
sound of short u. 

Pronounce, Opin'ion, obed'ience, provide', promote', provoke', 
pota'to, tobac'co, posi'tion, soci'ety, el'oquence, disposi'tion, mel'- 
ody, composi'tion. 

16. Do not lay too much stress on an unaccented syllable or a syllable 
having a secondary accent. 

Pronounce, Gigan'tic, precise'ly, salva'tion, loca'tion, vaca'- 
tion, ter'ritory, sec'ondary, mat'rimony, prom'issory, vac'cinated. 



CO M POSITION. 163 

17. Do not substitute the sound of oo for that of bong ?/ in the following 
words. 

Proiiouiice, Mute, tune, cluke, duty, tube, mu'sic, nude, du'- 
bious, lute, in'stitute, lllude', 

IS. Do not give the sound of long u after r, ch or sh when the sound of oo 
long or short should be heard. 

Pronounce, Ruby, rule, fruit, truth, chew, grew, sure, sugar, 
truly, bru'tal, rude, ru'bicund, through. 

V.\ The vowel a, when unaccented, at the end of a word has the sound of 
a in far, charm and star somewhat shortened. 

Pronounce, Pi'ca, da'ta, dra'ma, com'ina, so'fa, al'gebra, Chi'na, 
Amer'ica, dilem'ina, rai'ca, alpac'a, a'rea, neb'ula. 

COMPOSITION. 

Write a composition using the following outline as a guide. Each 
topic ma>j form one paragraph in the composition : 

Subject, Going to School. 

1. The object of going to school. 

2. Behavior at school. 

.. I'.ehavior on the road to and from school. 
4. Difference between a school and a religious meeting. 
"). The usual exercises of a school. 

ERRORS IN LANGUAGE. 

Correct the following sentences, and explain why the correction is 
wsade. 

i. Yon was kindly treated. 18. 

_'. Appearances is often deceptive. 13. 

3. lie don't know what it is. 13. 

L. II<- dare not do as he threatened. 13. 
r,. What, does all my exertions avail? 

The correctness of these rules are doubtful. 

7. Thon sees the difficulty in which I am pl.e 
There was many reasons tor taking thai course. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Remark. — The apostrophe, besides being used in the possessive form 
is used to denote the omission of one or more letters. 

The following are often abbreviated by the use of the apostrophe: 



He's = he is. 
It's = it is. 
I'm = I am. 
You're = you are. 
We're = we are. 
They're = they are. 



O' = of. 
He'll == he will 
O'er = over. 
Ne'er = never. 
I've == I have. 
I'll = I will. 



Write a composition using the folloiving outline as a guide. Let 
each topic form one paragraph in the composition. 

Subject, Cloth. 

1. General appearance of cloth. 

2. Some of the forms in which it comes. 

3. Materials of which it is made. 

4. Its numerous uses. 

Subjects Suggested. — Leather, Paper, Felt, Crackers. 

ERRORS IN LANGUAGE. 

Correct the following sentences, and explain wlvy the correction is 
needed. 

1. Whom do they say that I am? 2. 

2. It was me that wrote the letter. 2. 

3. We did not know that it was him. 2. 

4. It is not me that he is angry with. 2. 

5. Industry and frugality leads to wealth. 13. 

6. James, and also his brother, have gone home. 

7. If I had been him, I should have done the same. 

8. To be good and to shun evil always brings happiness. 

Incorrect. Correct. 

1. They believe it to be I. They believe it to be me. 

2. We understood it to be she. We understood it to be her. 

3. Let him be whom he may. Let him be who he may. 

4. It could not have been her. It could not have been she. 

5. Who do they think him to be? Whom do they think him to be? 



COMPOSITION. 



165 



PRONUNCIATION. 

IMroction. — Pronounce the following words giving the proper ac'cent 
to each syllable : 



Xouns. 

con'flict 

ac'cent 

con'trast 

con 'duct 

ob'ject 

es'cort 

prod'uce 

con'tract 



Verbs. 

conflict' 

accent' 

contrast' 

conduct' 

object' 

escort' 

produce' 

contract' 



Nouns. 

pre'fix 
re 'tail 
per 'fume 
surVey 
con 'cert 
con' vert 
convict 
cem'ent 



Verbs. 

prefix' 

retail' 

perfume' 

survey' 

concert' 

convert' 

convict' 

cement' 



Direction. — Pronounce each of the following words in rapid succes- 
sion, putting the sound of a as heard in the words, mast, blast and far 

into each: 

Pronounce, France, slant, graft, dance, blast, staff, 
lance, clasp, ask, plaster, grant, glance, master, cast, class, 
prance, pass, demand, mass, pastor, gasp, enchant, chance, 
grass, glass, advance, pasture, mast. 

Write a short composition answering the. following questions. 
Subject, Pears. 

1. Are pears a cultivated or a wild fruit? 
•2. Where do they grow? 

3. Is there more than one kind of pears? 

4. What are some of the hest kinds of pears? 
:.. For what arc pean 086(1? 

*'.. What drink is made from pears? 
7. How arc dried pears prepared? 

Subjects Bnggented. — Apples % Cherries t ffrapes, Peaches. 

Punctuation. — Transposed and parenthetical words s phrases and 
clauses ore usually set off by commas; as t Doubtless^ this man is 
guilty. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



ERRORS IN LANGUAGE. 

Correct the following sentences, and explain why the correction is 
needed. 

1. Neither he or I are mistaken. 13. 

2. Either John or his brother have done this. 13. 

3. Either I or she are entitled to the prize. 13. 

4. Either ability or inclination were wanting. 

5. No pains nor cost were spared in her education. 

6. Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake. 

7. Neither poverty nor riches was the cause of his discontent. 

8. Our happiness or our misery mainly depend upon ourselves. 

Incorrect. Correct. 

1. Who did she marry? Whom did she marry? 

2. What for did she go? Why did she go? 

3. 'Taint no use trying. It is of no use trying. 

4. He hadn't ought to had it. He ought not to have had it. 

5. Me and John went a fishing. John and I went a fishing. 

DICTATION EXERCISES. 

To be analyzed. 

1. Your coat lies where you laid it an hour ago. 2. James 
rises early in the morning and raises the window. 3. Arthur rose 
from the grass and raised his hat as we approached. 4. The chair 
sits where I set it some time ago. 5. It sat all day where Martha 
had set it before you came. 6. It lay an hour where you had laid 
it. 

Suggestion. — A few minutes may be spent in a drill exercise 
pronouncing the words in the following paragraph. Put the 
sound of a as heard in calm, charm and far into each : 

Pronounce, Embalm, varnish, salve, far, path, arm, 
star, mamma, lathing, jaunt, halves, taunt, charm, launch, 
guard, charcoal, palm, calves, haunch, calm, hearth, balmy, 
laugh, psalm, haunt, aunt, farther, gape, jaunty, half. 



COMPOSITION. 167 

ERRORS IN LANGUAGE. 

Correct the following sentences i and explain why the correction ?.s 
needed: 

\. His influence was such as are rarely scon. 

2. Each of us had as much as ice desired. !>. 

3. Those ichich are ready may come forward. 

4. We have done every thing what you ordered. 

5. Truth and honesty cannot fail in its reward. 

i.. Every one must judge of their own feelings. 9. 

7. Let every one of you attend to your own business, i). 

Incorrect. Correct. 

1. I can't hardly tell. lean hardly tell. 

2. Has the boys gone? Have the boys gone? 

3. I can write better than him. I can write better than he. 

4. The boys which are here. The boys who are here. 
"). Each must have their own. Each must have his own. 

6. He don't know iiothiii' about He does not know any thing 

it. about it. 

7. Every one should have their Every one should have his own. 

own. 

Write a composition using the following outline as a guide: 
Subject, Traveling:. 

1. Different modes of traveling. 
1 Things to be gained by traveling. 

3. Mishap- and dangers to be encountered in traveling. 

4. <ome of the places and people that I would like to visit. 
o. liooks of travel which I have read. 

Direction. — Select a pupil to pronounce the words in the following par- 
agraph, putting the sound of n aa beard In the words assume, plural and 

tin id into each. Several Individuals may be called upon to pronounce the 
words, and Anally, the entire class: 

Pronounce, Tuesday, student, produce, consume, 

tuition, presume, Lucy, immoral, bugle, introduce, institute, 
opportunity, accurate, fuel, ague, duel, numeration, per- 
fume museum, acute, stupid. 



Itf8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Direction. — Pronounce each of the words in the following paragraph 
with distinct articulation and more than a little force. Pronounce them 
rapidly and repeatedly putting the sound of o as heard in nobby, torrid 
and model into each : 

Pronounce, Squash, hovel, horror, lobster, wasp, horrid, 
lottery, pod, lot, hog, gossip, wad, model, songster, nostril, 
modern, frock, object, morrow, nod, novel, sock, swan, 
what, sob. 

Select one of the following subjects and ivrite a composition purely 
imaginary. Write an outline of the subject before commencing to 
write the composition. 

1. " Autobiography of a Doll." 

2. " A Boy and a Purse of Gold." 

3. "Autobiography of a Pin." 

4. " My Trip to the Moon." 

5. " A Little Girl and her Lamb." 

Write an outline of each of the subjects in the foregoing list. 

Remark. — An " Autobiography of a Doll" means the history of its life, 
supposed to be written by itself. 

Correct the following sentences and explain why the correction is 
made: 

1. They plunged in the river. 

2. Who was it meant for? 7. i 

3. They all perished for thirst. 

4. We have no occasion of his services. 

5. I didn't see any thing into this. 

6. The kitten followed on after its mother. 

7. He rode several miles, driving a herd of oxen on horseback. 

8. How much did you send him to town with? 

Incorrect. Correct. 

\. I hain't got no slate. I haven't any slate. 

2. The folks are to home. The folks are at home. 

3. He went in the house. He went into the house. 

4. He told you and I. He told you and me. 

5. Have you spoke your piece? Have you spoken your piece? 



LETTER-WRITING. 169 

ERRORS IX LANGUAGE. 
Correct the following sentences and explain why the correction is 

1. The cat jumped on the table. 

2. This child is o/four years old. 

3. He asked of the boys a question. 

*. They live at Daytou Street in No. 28. 

5. We plunged into, and swam across the river. 

6. He divided his property between his five children. 

7. Which of these three books can I find that passage in? 

8. Such a man's remarks are not worthy your notice. 

Incorrect. Correct. 

1. Where is it at? Where is it? 

2. Not as I know of. Not that I am aware of. 

3. The bell was rang. The bell was rung. 

4. It rained right smart. It rained quite hard. 

5. Who did you give it to? To whom did you give it? 

6. Where did it come from? From where did it come? 

1. Whom do you suppose did it? 1. 

2. Art not thee and him related? 1. 

3. We know them are entirely mistaken? 1. 

4. She and me went to school together. 1. 
o. Them who do right shall be rewarded. 1. 

6. You and us have been very fortunate. 1 . 

7. / and her are going to take a walk together. 

8. You know as well as me what was done. 1. 

Punctuation. — Use the colon (:) between the parts of a sentence 
"•/</?/ these parts are themselves divided by the semicolon t and b 
" quotation or an enumeration of particulars when formally introduced. 

I>ir«H»tioii.— Have t li * * words in the following paragraph pronounced 
dearly, distinctly and with emphasis, patting the sound of u as heard in the 
words lube, mule, and tliily into each : 

Pronounce, Susan, dew, few, tune, glue, pupil, nubia, 
puny, June, tulip, flute, cube, music, pure, new. beauty, 
dewlap, knew. blue, blew, suit. 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



COMPOSITION, 

Write a composition using the following outline as a guide: 
Subject, Memory. 

1. The importance of a good memory. 

2. How far back we can go in our recollections. 

3. Methods of improving the memory. 

4. Instances of very great memory of which we have heard. 

Remark. — In writing a composition on a subject like the foregoing, 
it will often be found convenient to begin by taking a definition from the 

dictionary. 

i 

Direction.— Drill the class in the pronunciation of the following words 
putting the sound of o as heard in frost, fog, and borrow into each. 

Pronounce, Office, log, clock, gone, cloth, dog, cob- 
web, frog, fog, frost, sod, cotton, wrong, bottle, on, moss 
borrow, hod, soft, not. 

OTHER SUBJECTS. 

To be outlined: 

1. Perseverance. 6. Obedience to Parents. 

2. Industry. 7. Giving Way to Anger. 

3. Ambition. 8. Early Rising. 

4. Friendship. 9. Treatment of Animals. 

5. Hatred. 10. Learning to Draw. 

Direction. — Pronounce the words in the following paragraph repeat- 
edly putting the sound of oo as heard in tooth, moon and choose into 

each: 

Pronounce, Broom, food, tool, tour, noon, rude, boot, 
tooth, room, ooze, choose, goose, root, poor, true, whose, 
bouquet, roof, rule, croup, move, moon, brute soon, hoop, 
prove, cool, ruin, loose, hoof, rumor, truth. 



PRONUNCIATION. 1 71 

Direction. — Pronounce the following WOrjda rapidly and distinctly put- 
ting the short sound of oo as hoard in the words look, uoo«l and book 

into each : 

Pronounce, Hood, wool, bush, understood, cushion, 

stood, book, cooper, wood, hook, push, wooden, crooked, 
shook, look, footstep. 



ERRORS IN LANGUAGE. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences and explain the reason 
for the correction: 

1. It's leven o'clock. 

2. Jane, do twist that. 

3. She eat all there was left. 

4. Where did you get it at ? 

5. We was so glad to be with him. 

6. The teacher saw him and /. 

7. We had sparroicgrass for dinner. 

8. Those kind of people will never be satisfied. 
0. These sort of expressions should be avoided. 

Incorrect. Correct. 

1. It is me. It is I. 

2. Was it her? Was it she? 

3. Go to wonst. Go at once. 

4. It was spoke well. It was spoken well. 

5. They knowed better. They knew better. 

Direction.— Pronounce each of the following words putting into each 
the sound of th as heard In the words thread* breath and truth: 

Pronounce, Thumb, thick, wreath, mouth, breaths, 
youth-, death, deaths, fifth, thrive, throng, truths. 

Direction.— Pronounce the words in the following paragraph patting 
the sound of oo as heard in the words, boot, roost and whom into each : 

Pronounce, Bosom, croup, rule, moon, moose, route, 

ruin, whoop, groom, canoe, ruby, boom, balloon, roost, 
coop, raccoon, recruit, school, loop, COCOOn. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Direction.— Pronounce the following worls putting the sound of i as 
heard in the words, imitate, pin and diminish, into each: 

Pronounce, Divulge, diploma, digest, direction, piazza, 
pianist, piano, digestion, divisor, dividend, finance, dilute, 
direct. 

ERRORS IN LANGUAGE, 

Correct the errors in the following sentences and explain the reasons 
for the correction: 

1. We was so surprised. 

2. I'm most finished, wait! 

3. Why don't you do like I do? 

4. He don't never know how to act. 

5. Which of these two books is the best? 

6. Your brother has less mistakes than you. 

7. I was no sooner there but I wanted to be back, 

8. Solomon was wiser than any of the ancient kings. 

9. He was willing to take a more humble part. 

10. George sold three span of horses and seven head of cattle. 

Write an outline for a composition on each of the following sub- 
jects: 

1. How to Teach. 7. What is Education. 

2. How to Study. 8. The best Education. 

3. Examinations. 9. The Ideal School-house. 

4. School-Days. 10. The Uses of Fiction. 

5. Value of Attention. 11. How to learn to think. 

6. School-Manners. 12. The Struggles of a Monitor. 

Direction. — Pronounce the words in the following paragraph giving x 
the sound of ks as heard in the words, tax, excuse and excel: 

Pronounce, Wax, expel, express, exhibition, expect, 
except, excite, expression, exclamation. 

Direction. — Pronounce the words in the following paragraph giving x 
the sound gz as heard in the words, exact, exist and example: 

Pronounce, Examine, exalt, exert, exaggerate, exertion, 
exactly, exhale, exhibit, examination, esample. 



COMPOSITION. 173 

Direction. — Pronounce the following words repeatedly putting into 
each the sound of s as heard in the words, disaster, amuse and 
disdain: 

Pronounce, Dissolve, dishonesty, dishonorable, disas- 
trous, disdain, disease, disarm, disaster, dismal, disown, 
dishonest, dishonor. 



ERRORS IN LANGUAGE. 

Correct the violations of purity and propriety, in the follouing 
sentences: 

1. The religion of the people, as well as their customs and 
manners, were strangely misrepresented. 2. The king soon found 
reason to repent him of provoking such dangerous enemies. 3. 
The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the sub- 
ject. 4. I shall endeavor to live hereafter suitable to a man in my 
station. 5. It was thought that the coup d'etat would have oc- 
casioned an emeute. 6. The dernier ressort of the emperor will be 
to make the amende honorable; but nous verrons. 7. You can't 
bamboozle me with such excuses. 8. I should be obliged to him, 
if he will gratify me in that particular. 9. May is par excellence 
the month of flowers; it is delicious at this season to go stroaming 
about the fields. 

1. One is in a bad fix that has to spend a rainy day away from 
home. 2. It is difficult for one unaccustomed to [sophism, or 
sophistry?] to succeed in a [sophism, or sophistry?]. 3. We 
may try hard, and still be [further, or farther] from success than 
ever. 4. Every thing goes helter-skelter and topsy-turvy, when 
a man leaves his business to be done by others. 5. The alone 
principle; — the balance of them; — at a wide remove; — I learned 
him the lesson ; — to fall trees ; — like he did ; — we started directly 
they came ; — 6. What [further, or farther?] need have we of 
caution? 7. Still [further, or farther?], what evidence have we of 
this? B. One brave [act, or action?] often changes defeat into 
victory. 9. Our [acts, or actions?] genera'ly proceed from instinct 
or impulse; our [acts, or actions?] are more frequently the result 
of deliberation. 



SUPERSCRIPTION. 



, t$. 






INTRODUCTION TO THE CRITICAL DIGEST. 



In this work it is the intention that the Graded Method be completed 
before the work in the Critical Digest be commenced. The former is a 
method of teaching language through the medium of the science; the latter 
is designed as a concise exposition of the science itself. Those who insist 
on commencing with the Critical Digest will forfeit all the advantages 
afforded by this modern method, while those who pursue the course here 
suggested will find in the latter part an enjoyable review of the detail of the 
science, a knowledge of nearly all of which was acquired in the Graded 
Method. 



SUPERSCRIPTION. 






A 
CRITICAL DIGEST 

OF 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. Language is the expression of thought by means 
of words, spoken or written. 

2. Grammar is the science that treats of the prin- 
ciples of language. 

3. English Grammar teaches how to speak and 
write the English language correctly. 

Remark. — As a science it explains the structure of our language. 
As an art it lays down rules for its correct use. 

4. English Grammar is divided into four parts: 
Orthography, Etymology , Syntax and Prosody. 

5. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate 

words and spelling. 

£>. Etymology treats of the classification, derivation 
and properties of word-. 

7. Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, govern- 
ment and arrangement of words in sentences. 

8. Prosody treats of the quantity of syllables, of 
accenl and of the laws of versification. 

175 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A more strict analysis of the science of language limits to a 
considerable extent the scope of grammar, by assigning to places 
more appropriate, several of the kinds of knowledge vaguely in- 
cluded in grammatical science. 

Orthography forms the subject-matter of special manuals of 
spelling, and is to be learned from these and from the dictionary. 
Prosody is a branch of rhetoric, or English composition. Etymol- 
ogy does not properly belong to grammar, but is to be studied in 
text-books of etymology or word-analysis. 

It thus appears that grammar, in its strict sense, is limited to 
two departments of language-study : Etymology and Syntax. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

DEFINITIONS. 

1. Orthography treats of elementary sounds, letters, 
syllables and spelling. 

2. An Elementary Sound is one which can not be 
separated into two or more distinct sounds. 

3. Letters are signs invented to represent vocal 
sounds. 

Thoughts and historical facts were first represented by pictures ; 
from these pictures the letters of our alphabet have deen derived. 

Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. Vowels repre- 
sent open sounds and are formed by the act of breathing upon the 
vocal chords. Consonants represent sounds produced by direct 
contact of particular organs of speech. 

4. There are twenty-six letters in our alphabet. Of 
these, all are consonants except the five vowels, «, e, 
i 9 o, u. 

Remark. — The letters w and y have consonant- sounds at the beginning 
of a word or syllable, and vowel -sounds at the end of a word or syllable. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 177 

5. A Syllable is a sound or a combination of sounds 
produced by a single impulse of the voice. 

6. A Word may be either a syllable or a combination 
of syllables. 

Examples. — Man, man-hood, in-ter-me-di-aie . 

There are forty-two elementary sounds in the English language. 
Since there are only twenty-six letters in the English alphabet it 
becomes necessary that some letters represent more than one 
sound. 

7. A Diphthong' consists of two vocals sounded to- 
gether in the same syllable. 

Examples. — In boil, oi; in few, ew. 

8. A Digraph consists of two vowels written to- 
gether in the same syllable, one only being pronounced. 

Examples. — ^4o,gaol; an, maul; aio, maw; ay, may; ea, meat: 
ee, need; ei, ceiling; eo, people; ew, feud; ew, new; ey, they; ie, 
lief: oa, coat; oe, foe; oi, avoirdupois; oo, moon; ou, tour; ow, 
flow; ua, guard. 

9. A Trigraph consists of three vowels written to- 
gether in the same syllable. 

Examples. — Eau, beauty; eon, gorgeous; ieu, lieu; awe, awe; 
ieiCy view: aye, aye. 

10. A Double Consonant consists of two consonants 
written together and representing but one elementary 
sound. 

Examples. — Wh, when ; ng, sintj: th t thin: sh t lmsli: ch t chaise, 
chord: ah. laugh; ph t physic. 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

FORMS OF THE LETTERS. 

1. Various sizes and styles of type are used in. 
printing: 

Great Primer, ^ n all p ^ ica e ' SSSu, 
English, Bouie!S mer ' tT 

x 1C& 5 Brevier, Diamond, 

2. The larger letters are called CAPITALS; the 
others, small letters. These forms of letters were 
used by the Romans more than two thousand years 
ago. Hence they are called Roman letters, 

Roman. Italics. @"« 

3. The Italics are so called because they are used 
by the people of Italy in writing their language, the 
Italian. 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

1. The first word of every sentence should begin 
with a capital letter. 

2. The first word in every line of poetry should be- 
gin with a capital letter. 

3. The first word of a direct quotation should begin 
with a capital letter. 

Direct Quotation. — Cowper says, " Slaves can not breathe in 
England." 

Indirect Quotation. — Cowper says that slaves can not breathe 
in England. 



CAPITAL LKTTERS. 1 7!> 

4. The names of persons, places, days, months, 
countries, cities, rivers, mountains — all proper 
nouns, should begin with capital letters. 

Examples. — John, Hilda, Cincinnati, Ohio, France, Paris, Lon- 
don, Wednesday, July, Danube, Mt. Tabor, Pikes Peak, Mr. W. A. 
Holmes. 

5. Titles of distinction or honor, when used alone, 
or when accompanied by names, should begin with 
capital letters. 

Examples. — The Elder was present this morning; We saw the 
Duke of York and Earl Russell; Dr. Johnson; Gen. Harrison; Sir 
Robert Peel; George the Third; Charles the Bold. 

6. Words and phrases used as the names of particu- 
lar objects should begin with capital letters. 

Examples. — They have just returned from the Cape of Good 
Hope; We passed through the City of Brotherly Love and visited 
the Falls; Johu o' Groat's House; the Round Tower; the Sailor's 
Home ; I have read The Tent on the Block. 

7. The personal pronoun /, the interjection O, and 
single letters forming abbreviations of proper names, 
should be capital letters. 

8. All appellations of the Deity should begin with 
capital letter-. 

Examples. — Divine Providence; the Father, the Son, and the 
Holy Ghost: our Lord JeSUS ( 'hrist j Godj the Most High; the Su- 
preme ; the Infinite One; 

In the 086 ol pronouns referring to expressed antecedents which 
are names of the Deity, capitals are sometimes used, but notal- 

Way8. In this as irell as in many other instances the good taste 
of the writer must decide. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Examples. — " God provides for all his creatures ; " " The hope of my 
spirit turns trembling to Thee;" " O thou merciful God ! " " Trust in Him, 
for He will sustain thee." 

9. Names denoting the race or nation of individuals 
should begin with capital letters. 

Examples.—- The Italians; the Americans; the Hungarians; the Mex- 
icans; the Anglo-Saxons. 

10. Adjectives derived from proper nouns should 
begin with capital letters. 

Examples. — Italian fruits ; American goods ; Hungarian sol- 
diers; Mexican leather; the Russian army. 

11. Names of things addressed — things personified, 
should begin with capital letters. 

Example. — " Come, gentle Spring ! ethereal Mildness! come." 

12. Words of special importance usually begin with 
capital letters. 

Examples* — Be prepared for the Great Day; Angler's Com- 
panion; a Complete and Superior Treatise on the art of Angling; 
the Commissioners of Public Schools. 

13. In titles and headings the nouns, the adjectives, 
the participles and other important words should begin 
with capital letters. The unimportant words should 
begin with small letters. 

14. The first word after an introductory clause, or 
an introductory word, should begin with a capital 
letter. 

Examples. — "Resolved, That the Committee, " etc. " Be it 
enacted by the House of Delegates, That the fourteenth section, " 
etc. 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 181 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

1. "The day is past and gone; 

the evening shades appear; 

O may we all remember well 
the night of death draws near." 

2. The question is, which of them can best pay the penalty? 

3. The answer may be, yes or no. 

4. The bible says, children, obey your parents. 

5. The central park; the Ohio river; I have read " great expecta- 
tions ;" the mountains of the moon are in Africa. 

<i. "I know that my redeemer liveth; " "I am the way, the 
truth, the life;" " The word was made flesh." 

7. This chief had the sounding appellation of white thunder. 

8. In ancient days there dwelt a sage called discipline. 

9. There lay madam partlet, basking in the sun, breast-high in 
sand. 

10. The emancipation proclamation; the Missouri compromise; 
11 A treatise on the science of education and the art of teaching." 

11. This county was settled by welsh emigrants, who were zeal- 
ous christians, and entered heartiiy into our i evolutionary strug- 
gle. 

12. New year's day and the fourth of July are holidays. 

13. Cowper, the Author of the Task, was a good Poet. 

14. The secretary of state visited fortress Monroe. 

15. The green mountains are in Vermont; but green mountain- 
may be seen in any mountainous country. An act of congress 
should be of greater importance; than an acl of a clown. Lord's 
day means Sunday. " My dear mother," " my dear friend," " my 
dear sister." "My dear sir," "my dear aunt lucy," "friend 
miller." "Dear teacher," "my dear teacher." Where is John? 

sir. Thomas said, "my lord and my god." Chas. went to 
boston Wednesday, jane 1st . 

Hi. Gen, root. e. lee and pres. grant. Gentle summer Is 

The sailor's home. The bOBtdn n«'ws letter. The 
english capital new york. The great day Is coming. 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ITALICS AND SMALL CAPITALS. 

1. Words borrowed from foreign languages should 
be printed in italics. 

Examples. — Venturing upon extempore matter; " This old quid pro quo 
surprised me into vehement laughter."— Walpole. 

2. Emphatic words, phrases and clauses are some- 
times printed in italics. 

Examples.— When words have made me stay, I fled from blows; The 
truth is, his lordship weeps for the puss; A mere string of sentences is not a 
composition. 

3. The names of authors placed at the end of quo- 
tations from their writings are generally printed in 
italics. 

Example.-" Each word stood quite per se."—Lamb. 

4. Names of periodicals and books, names of ships 
and palace cars and many other similar names are gen- 
erally printed in italics or small capitals. 

Examples. — The Home Journal is on the table; The Belle of 
Memphis sank in shallow water; The Cumberland stands on the fifth track ; 
He has a copy of the Royal Path of Life. 

In manuscripts, one line drawn under a word indicates italics; 
two lines, small capitals ; three lines, CAPITALS. 



Italicized words in the Bible are those supplied by translators 
to explain the original. 

WORDS. 

1. A Word may consist of one or more syllables. 

2. A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable. 

3. A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables. 

4. A Trisyllable is a word of three syllables. 



WORDS. 183 

5. A Polysyllable is a word of four or more syllables. 

6. A Primitive word is a root-word, or a primary 
sound representing an idea. 

7. A Derivative word is a word derived from a root- 
word by the addition of one or more syllables. 

Primitive —mind, faith, call, join, man. 

Derivative.— Re- mind, iaith-ful, re-call, con- join, man- hood. 

8. Compound words may be either primitive or 
derivative. They are formed by the union of two or 
more other words. 

Examples. — Ill-will, man-worship, poverty-stricken, Anglo- 
Saxon, double-headed. 

9. A Prefix is that part of a derivative word which 
is placed before the radical. (Page 125.) 

10. A Suffix is that part of a derivative word which 
is placed after the radical. 

Direction. — The meaning and use of prefixes and suffixes should 
be learned by a systematic study of the work in that section of this volume 
which is devoted to the analysis of words. 

Both prefixes and suffixes may consist of more than one sylla- 
ble. Words of more than one syllable are accented. 

11. Accent is the stress of voice placed upon a 
particular syllable in a word. 

12. Correct pronunciation follows the usage of the 
best speakers. 

Rrmark.-Thc dictionary Ifl Supposed to give the b68t Usage, I'"' BOme* 

timet custom prerails over the Authority ot the dictionary. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

KULES FOR SPELLING. 

Spelling is the art of expressing words by their 
right letters, properly arranged. This art must be 
acquired chiefly from spelling books, dictionaries, and 
observation in reading. 

The spelling-book used should be a companion or word-list to 
the readers. The new words found in each reading lesson form 
a group in the companion spelling-book, and this group should be 
taught as a spelling lesson a few days before the reading lesson is 
assigned. By adhering to this plan the new words become* a re- 
view lesson at the reading recitation. 

1. Monosyllables ending in jf, /, or s 9 preceded by a 
single vowel, double the final consonant. 

Examples. — Staff, mill, pass: except clef, if, of, bul, mil, sal, sol, as, gas 
has, was, yes, is, his, this, us, thus, pus. 

2. Words ending in any other consonant than f, I, 
or 5, do not double the final letter „ 

Exeplions. — Abb, ebb, add, odd, egg, inn, err, burr, purr, yarr, butt, 
buzz, fuzz, and some proper names. 

3. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last 
syllable, when they end with a single consonant pre- 
ceded by a single vowel, double their final consonant 
before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel. 

Examples. — Rob, robber; permit, permitting ; acquit, acquittal, 
acquitting. 

Exceptions. — X, k> and v, are never doubled and gas has gases 
in the plural. 

4. A final consonant, when it is not preceded by 
a single vowel, or when the accent is not on the last 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 185 

syllable, should remain single before an additional 
syllable. 

r.xuinpU's. — Toil, toiling; visit* visited; general, generalize. 

5. Words ending with any double letter preserve 
it double before any additional termination, not begin- 
ning with the same letter. 

Examples. — Seeing, blissful, oddly, kitty, stiffness, illness, smalfness, can 
fetsnew, agreement, agreeable. 

ft. Final e, is dropped before a suffix beginning 
with a vowel. 

Examples. — Fine, finer; lore, loving. 

Exceptions. — The e, is retained (I) after c and g, when the 
suffix begins with a or o; as, peaceable, changeable; (2) after o; 
as, hoeing ; and (3) when it is needed to preserve the identity 
of the word; as, singeing, dyeing. 

7. Final y, preceded by a consonant, changes to 
l when a suffix is added not beginning with ?'. 

Examples. — WUty, wittier; dry, dried. 

Letter of Introduction. 

A letter given by one person to another for the purpose of 
Introducing the latter to some other person, is called a letter of 
INTRODUCTION. 

Toledo, O., May 30th, 1801 . 
My dear Friend, 

This mill introduce t<> you Mr. William Howard, an old and dear 
nntance of mine. If-' is visiting your <-ity for the first time, and 
any attention it mag he in your power to show him during hie stag will 
■ ,,, et I by him, and regarded as a personal favor by 
Yours very sina n ly, 

Henry M. Brown, 
Mr. <>. If. Thompson, 
id, Ohio. 



AsIm**^L^IcL, w(p~ , Jlus^. Stlf, 1 88^. 

fit". \jO-'USJzs, J\p^. 

^^yJCL-esm^^^t^ 9 

J u^a^u^e^ bs^esvu UsC-^ots as^v^-e^JO^^esni^essiJO 

v^^a, to- g-LCzs'l/ vKsU,^^LC £c-t/ t^u^es i^to-oes. 
asms vug-Is a^Ct^as^L "Co-* vj~o-ts'fcs. %s aJCC&m,cL^cL ■ 

OSJSX^ Us^O^t^, G^l^cL U^O^X^^ ^SlSVUCSZs V-es€SKs est* 



C-esi4sdsiSsi^ay t/vues ^o^n^n^es^Csoa^^ -^Oo-LL-e^a^^s. 
Uus^tz^&s Cauc^C^s zv^utC Osisu-s^s u^o-ou a^'sis <^cL^cl> g~L 

WSAs ^GsVL^Las\^^WsL>£Ls'> OsVLscL, CL>& &V^lscLesrisX>€s c^C 
YI4sUs GsO-O-cL C^VfsOsXsCSC^ts'eA^ , iS €ssi^CsCo-hs€s VGs^t^is* 

ntso-suc&^t^ Lvc-^nu Vu^es <s \se^iscbzsvjt> o-C Vibes 
-\Oo^CCe^Gszs a^vucL n^us Co-^vHs^s'ls t^O/C^K/e^. 

J\jsCjs^^s^Vtsi^a^ tsuszs L-asv-Q-As c~Z> as^ v*i£eA** 
x^uzsjj-*, <J~ asms, 

LfC-'Us^$s, v^eA^Us t^^fis*si^££<^LCus, 

J^esy^^Us iM-. nasVcL. 



ETYMOLOGY, 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Etymology is that part of grammar which treats of 
the classification, modification and derivation of words. 

Words are divided into classes called parts of speech; namely, 
the noun, the adjective, the pronoun, the verb, the participle, the ad- 
verb, the preposition, the conjunction and the interjection. 

A Noun is a word used as the name of any object. 

A Pronoun is a word that stands for a noun. 

A Verb is a word which expresses being, action, or 
state. (Page 8.) 

An Adjective is a word that describes or points out 
a noun. (Page 10.) 

An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning 
of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

A Preposition is a word used to show the relation 
between a following noun or pronoun and some other 
word. (Page 28.) 

Remark. — A Preposition ifl a word used with R noun or pronoun to 
form a phrase that is used as a modiiicr. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words. 
phrases and sentences. (Page 111.) 

is; 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

An Interjection is a word used to denote some sud- 
den or strong emotion. (Page 114.) 

A Participle is a word derived from a verb, and 
partakes of the properties of a verb and of an adjec- 
tive or noun. 

Remark. — The Participle is a form of the verb that may be used as a 
noun or an adjective. (Page 62.) 

CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

1. There are two classes of Nouns: Common and 
Proper. 

2. A Common Noun is a name which may be applied 
to any one of a kind or class of objects ; as, child, 
book, astronomy. 

3. A Proper Noun is the name of some particular 
person, place, people or thing. All Proper Nouns 
should begin with Capitals; as, Henry, Indiana, 
Blooming ton, the French. 

& proper noun distinguishes an object from the class to which 
it belongs. When a proper noun is used in such a manner as to 
admit of its application to each individual of a class, it becomes a 
common noun. 

Example.— He is the Webster of this school; Bolivar was the Washing- 
ton of South America. He is the Cicero of our age. 

4. Common Nouns are generally divided into four 
classes : 

Class Nouns, names which may be applied to each individual 
of a class of objects: Man, tree, house, bird. 

Abstract Nouns, names of qualities: tenacity, brilliancy, cohe- 
sion, hardness, ductility. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 189 

Collective Nouns, names singular in form but representing 
more than one: sicarm, assembly, army, jury. 

Participial Nouns, names of actions or states of being: walk- 
ing, sleeping, thinking. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 

1. The Properties of Nouns are Gender, Person, 
Number and Case. (Page 72.) 

2. Gender is a distinction of nouns and pronouns 
with regard to sex. 

The Masculine gender denotes males. The Feminine gen- 
der denotes females. The Common gender denotes either males or 
females. The Neuter gender denotes neither males nor females. 

3. The Masculine and Feminine genders are dis- 
tinguished in three ways : 

1. By the use of different words: 

Examples. — Sir, Madam; nephew, niece; son, daughter; 
uncle, aunt; Charles, Caroline; Augustus, Augusta; bridegroom, 
bride; brother, sister; boy, girl; cock, hen; drake, duck; earl, 
countess; father, mother; geutlemau, lady; hart, roe; male, fe- 
male; man, woman; Mr., Mrs. 

2. By the use of different terminations : 

Examples. — Host, hostess; baron, baroness; abbott, abbess 
•rer, sorceress; murderer, murderess; prior, prioress; ben- 
efactor, benefactress ; executor, executrix. 

3. By the use of prefixes and suffixes : 

Examples. — Man-servant, maid-servant: lie-bear, she-bear; 
male-descendant, female-descendant : cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow; 
Mr. Smith, Mrs. Smith, Miss smith: pea-cock, pea-hen. 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When the sex is not apparent the neuter pronoun is 
sometimes used ; as, It is a fine bird. 

The masculine pronoun is preferred to the feminine 
when the sex is not definitely known. 

Examples. — Every person should try to improve his mind. 
Each of the pupils should procure a book for his own exclusive 
use. A parent should care for the education of his child. 

Things without life are said to be personified when 
they are spoken to, or spoken of, as persons or living 
beings. 

Examples. — " Roll on, thou dark and deep blue ocean, roll!" 
iC Charity seekethnot her own." 

Personification endows a neuter noun with the at- 
tributes of sex; as, 

" And Belgium's capital had gathered then 
Her beauty and her chivalry." — Byron. 

4. Person is that property of noun or pronoun 
which distinguishes the speaker, the person spoken 
to, and the person or object spoken of. (Page 73.) 

The First person denotes the speaker. The Second person de- 
notes the person spoken to. The Third person denotes the person 
or object spoken of. 

Punctuation. — Names of persons spoken to should be separated 
from the rest of the sentence by a comma. 

Remark. — A writer of ten speaks of himself in the third person; as, M 
Collins has the pleasure of informing Mr. Ingerson that he has been pro- 
moted to the managing editor's chair. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 1<)[ 

A noun in the predicate is third person even when the subject 
is iirst or second. 

Examples. — We arc the men. You are strangers to us. Go no further, 
I am hi . 



NUMBER. 

Number is a property of nouns that distinguishes 
one thing from more than one. 

The Singular Number denotes but one thing. The Plural 
Number denotes more things than one. 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

Most nouns form their plural number by adding s to the singu- 
lar: as, house, houses; book, books. 

Nouns ending in ch soft, o preceded by a consouant g, sh, x, v;i 
z, form their plural by .adding es to the singular. 

Examples. — Match, matches; tomato, tomatoes ; cross, crosses ; brush, 
brushes: box, boxes; waltz, waltzes. 

Pluralize, Volcano, tornado, cargo, hero, calico, embargo, motto, 
grotto, innuendo, potato, negro, mulatto, mosquito. 

Some nouns in o preceded by a consonant add 8 

only. 

Examples. — Pianos, juntos, provisos, quartos, duodecimos, halo-, 

cantos, >oio-, tyros, octavos. 

Nouns ending La o preceded by a vowel, follow the general rule 
and add >• ; as, (olio, folios 

Nouns ending In y preceded by a consonant change y Into t and 

add es. 

Examples. — Mercy , mercies; glory, glories; army, armies 



192 EMGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel follow the general rule 
of adding s. 

Examples. — Storey, storeys; chimney, chimneys. 

Pluralize, Valley, fairy, daisy, city, attorney, alley , ally , fancy , 
kidney, lady, lily, money, monkey, soliloquy, turkey. 

Most nouns ending in f change f to v and add es; 
those ending in fe change fto v and add s. 

Examples. — Wife, wives ; beef, beeves ; elf, elves ; calf, calves ; 
loaf, loaves; thief, thieves; wolf, wolves; half, halves; leaf, 
leaves; shelf, shelves. 

Some nouns ending in/ and fe follow the general rule and add s. 

Examples. — Hoops, proofs, gulfs, fifes, dwarfs, chief s, brief s, beliefs, 
reefs, safes, waifs, safes. 

Pluralize, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, 
shelf, thief, wife, wolf. 

Some nouns form their plurals irregularly; as, man, men; ox, 
oxen; tooth, teeth; mouse, mice. 

Letters, figures, and other characters, are made plural by an- 
nexing 's. 

Examples* — The a's and n's in the first line. Mind yourp's 
and q's; the 9's and IPs; the *'s; the +'s; "Those 3's and B's. 

In compound words the part which is described by 

the rest is generally pluralized. 

Examples. — Wagon-loads; cowrte-martial ; brothers -m-\&w . 

Some compound words have both parts made plural. 

Examples. — Man-servant, men-servants; knight-templar, knights-tem- 
plars; ignis-fatuus, ignes-fatui. 

Compounds ending mful, and all those in which the principal 
word is put last, form the plural by annexing s. 

Examples. — Handfuls, spoonfuls, mouthfuls, fellow servants, man-serv- 
ants. 

Compound terms composed of a proper noun and a title may 



ETYMOLOGY NOUNS . 193 

be pluralized by adding a plural termination to either the name or 
the title, but not to both; as, the Miss Whites or the Misses White. 

Pluralize, Mr. Jones, General Grant, Miss Collins, Dr. Brown, 
Miss Clark, Mrs. Hardy. 

A title used with two or more different names is made plural. 

Examples. — Drs. Hill and Vastine; Messrs. Hall and Hamil- 
ton. 

Many nouns have two plurals, but with a difference 



Examples. — Fish, fishes (individuals),^^ (quautity, or the 
species) ; genius, geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits) ; index, 
indexes (tables of contents), indices (algebraic signs); brother, 
brothers (of the same family), brethren (of the same society). 

Nouns from foreign languages retain their original 
plurals. (Page 77.) 

Examples. — Index, indices; crisis, crises; calix, calices; 
ephemeris, ephemerides ; thesis, theses ; criterion, criteria ; calculus 
calculi; cherub, cherubim or cherubs; datum, data; ellipsis, elllp- 
crratum, errata; ignis fatuus, ignesfatui; madame, mesdames; 
monsieur, messieurs; nebula, nebulae; radius, radii or radiuses; 
seraph, seraphim or seraphs; stratum, strata; synopsis, synop- 
ses; terminus, termini; vertebra, vertebrae; vortex, vortices or 
vortexes. 

The names of things weighed or measured are generally used i 
the singular number only. 

Examples. — Tea, Hour, barley, ale, wheat, cotton. 

Some nouns having a plural form are frequently treated as 
nouns in the singular number. (Page 77.) 

Example*. — Mathematics, alms, news, means, shambles, amends, 
ethics, optics. 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Some nouns are used in the plural only. 

Examples* — Wages, ashes, bellows, billiards, bowels, com- 
passes, entrails, intestines, measles, oats, pincers, scissors, snuf- 
fers, thanks, tongs, trousers, vespers. 

CASE. 

1. Case is that property of nouns and pronouns 
which shows how they are used in the construction of 
sentences. 

There are three cases : the nominative, the possessive, and the 
objective. 

Remark. — These three cases admit of only two forms : the nominative 
and objective, which are one and the same form, and the possessive. 

2. The Nominative Case is the use of a noun or 
pronoun as the subject or the predicate of a sentence. 

Examples. — Henry is your friend; I am he. 

The Nominative Absolute Case is the use of a noun independ- 
ent of any governing word. 

Examples.- " John, bring me a book;" " Yomx fathers, where are they?* 
" Honor being lost, all is lost." (Page 51.) 

3. The Possessive Case denotes possession or 
ownership. 

Examples. — William took George's hat. 

4. The Objective Case is the use of a noun or pro- 
noun as the object of a transitive verb or preposition, 
or the subject of an infinitive. 

Examples. — We saw your brother. (Page 17.) He gave it to me, (Page 
29.) Henrjr wanted me to go. (Page 57.) 



ETYMOLOGY NOUNS. 195 

The possessive term is always used as a modifier — an adjec- 
tive element. (Page 15.) 

Examples. — Touched by thy hand, again Rome's glories shine ; Our 
Country's Welfare ; Your being an American. 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 



1. The Declension of a noun or pronoun is a reg- 
ular arrangement of its numbers and cases. 



Examples of Declension. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Norn, fox, 


foxes, 


Nom. 


Sheep 


Sheep 


Poss. fox's, 


foxes', 


Poss. 


Sheep's 


Sheep' 


Ooj. fox; 


foxes. 


Obj. 


Sheep 


Sheep 


Nom. Man 


Men 


Nom. 


Lady 


Ladies 


Poss. Man's 


Men's 


Poss. 


Lady's 


Ladies 


Obj. Man 


Men 


Obj. 


Lady 


Ladies 



Write the declension of the following nouns: 

Goose, sheep, child, mouse, woman, wife, ox, horse, James, boy, 
lady, bird, prince, princess, teacher, scholar, parent, farmer. 

3. The Possessive Form of singular nouns and of 
plural nouns which do not end in 8 is made by annex- 
ing to the name of the owner an apostrophe (') and 
the letter *; as, Webster's Dictionary; men's hats; 
sheep's wool; oxen's horns. (Page 117.) 

4. The Possessive Form of plural nouns ending in 
* and of singular nouns ending in s is generally formed 
by annexing the apostrophe only: as, Soldiers' camp; 
Boys* -lines: Xerxes' army; Teachers' Association. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Many writers fail to recognize established rules for the forma- 
tion of singular nouns, especially proper nouns ending with an 
s-sound; as, "Dennis's Works." — Pope. "Louis's reign." — 
Macaulay. " Charles's affairs." — Prescott. 

When nouns in the possessive case are connected by a conjunc- 
tion, or put in apposition, the sign of possession must always be 
annexed to such, and such only, as immediately precede the modi- 
fied noun. 

Examples. — William and Mary's reign; Do it for Henry, my friend's, 
sake; George and Matilda's teacher; Everybody else's business. 

When the different possessors are thought of as separate or 
opposed, the sign may be repeated, although joint possession is 
implied. 

Examples. — He was his father's, mother's, and sister's favorite. He was 
the king's as well as the people's favorite. 

When a noun is put in apposition with a noun or pronoun in the 
possessive case, the sign may be omitted. 

Examples.-— This was Hamilton's opinion, the most distinguished 
scholar present. That carriage is Walter Brown's, the hatter. (Page 117.) 

To avoid a concurrence of hissing sounds, the s is sometimes 
omitted, and the apostrophe only retained. 

Examples. — Perkins' Geometry. Achilles' wrath. For conscience' sake. 
Felix' book. 

Without the s there is no distinction, in spoken language, be- 
tween Miss Clintie Evans and Miss Clintie Evans'; Mrs. Heman's 
and Mrs. Hemans\ For that reason usage favors the use of s: 
Miss Clintie Evans's, Mrs. Hemans's. 

Remark. — Pronounce the (s) as a separate syllable (=es), when the 
sound of s will not unite with the last sound of the nominative. 

Explanation. — In the Anglo-Saxon language, es was a genitive, 
that is, a possessive, termination of the singular; as, nominative, 
Smith; genitive, Smithes. In modern English the e is dropped, 
and the apostrophe (') stands in its place. 



ETYMOLOGY NOUNS . 197 

The apostrophe and s are sometimes annexed to that part of a 
compound name, which is, of itself, in the objective case. 

Examples. — He lives in the captain -of -the -guard's house. It belongs 
to my brother-in-law's estate. The keeper of the park's carriage has ar- 
rived. The Mayor of Cleveland's address. (Page 117.) 

In many instances it is far more elegant to make use of that form 
of expression in which the relation of possession is expressed by 
the use of the preposition of, with its object. 

Examples.— The wrath of Achilles. He lives in the house of the cap- 
tain-of-the-guard. The address of the Mayor of Cleveland. The house of 
my friend's father. 

Write the possessive singular and the possessive plural of each of 
the following nouns: 

Hero, negro, volcano, mosquito, tyro, junto, cuckoo, buffalo, 
princess, genius, horse, lion, king, farmer, actor, fairy, elephant, 
lady, monkey, wolf, thief, elf, wife, calf, goose, child, mouse, ox, 
woman, beau, sheep, beer, fish, seraph. 

Make each of the following terms indicate possession, first by the 
use of the possessive sign and afterwards by means of the preposition 
of, and its object. Use a name representing the thing possessed: 

William and Mary, Socrates, mountain, father-in-law, Will- 
iam the Conqueror, king of Great Britain, aid-de-camp, Henry the 
Eighth, attorney-at-law, somebody else, Jefferson, enemy, hero, 
eagle, elephant, gunpowder, book, house, chair. 

f Nominative. Mary, Xerxes, lady, ladies. 
Case Forms ] Possessive. Mary's, Xerxes', lady's, ladies 9 . 
[ Objective. Mary, Xerxes, lady, ladies. 

i Ted the following i -md improve by reconstructing when 

wary: 

1. We purchased our books at Penfleld's the druggist's. 2. 

The college was founded in William's and Mary's reign. 3. The 
ry was doubted. 4. This was John's, Charles's and Rob- 
ert's estate. 5. He wore the knight's-templar's costume. 7. The 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

goods were sent by the Merchant's Union Express. 8. That book 
is his'n. 9. The Bishop's of Dublin's palace. 10. We were com- 
paring Caesar and Napoleon's victories. 11. This is Tennyson's 
the poet's home. 

2. It was John, not Henry's fault. 2. It was George, not 
John's fault. 3. This belongs to Victoria's, queen of England's, 
dominion. 4. This province is Victoria's, queen of England's. 5. 
That language is Homer's, the greatest poet of antiquity's. 6. 
My fathers hat is lost. 7. This is my wife's father's house. 8. This 
was Franklin's motto; the distinguished philosopher's and states- 
man's. 9. Wolsey's, the cardinal's, career ended in disgrace. 10. 
Fraver's and England's interests differ widely. 11. My brother's 
wife's sister's drawings have been much admired. 12. The draw- 
ings of the sister of the wife of my brother have been much ad- 
mired. 

Sometimes the possessive case ending is omitted. In such 
cases the nouns simply become adjectives. 

Examples. —He took a three miles walk every day. The teachers com - 
mittee made the report. 

Punctuation. — The semicolon is used to separate the members of a 
compound sentence, when the connective is omitted. 

COMPOSITION. 

Write a composition on "fox" paying attention to the following 
points: 

1. The different kinds of foxes. 

2. Where they live. 

3. How they live. 

4. What they eat. 

5. How they are caught or killed. 

6. What their skins are used for. 

7. Relate an anecdote about a fox, or give an account of a fox- 
hunt. 

Subjects Suggested. — Eagles, pigeons, crows, robins, tigers, 
condors. 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 
ORDER OF PARSING THE NOUN. 



199 



NOUN. 


CLASS. 


3RNDER. 


person. 

First 

Second 

Third 


NUMBER. 


CASE. 

Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


K. 


Common 
Proper 


Masculine 
Feminine 
Neuter 
Common 


Singular 
Plural 



MODELS FOR PARSING. 

1. The Romans conquered Carthage. 

2. News has been received of the generaVs defeat. 

3. William, your sister, Matilda, called for you. 



Nouns. 


CLASS. 


GENDER. 


PERSON. 


NUMBER. 


CASE. 


R. 


" Romans," 


prop., 


masc, 


third, 


plur., 


nom., 


1. 


" New-,'' 


com., ' 


neut., 


third, 


sing., 


nom., 


1 


"General's," 


com., 


masc, 


third, 


sing., 


poss., 


3. 


"Defeat," 


com., 


neut., 


third, 


sing., 


obj., 


7. 


" William,'' 


prop., 


masc, 


second, 


sing., 


nom., 


5. 


M Matilda," 


prop., 


fern., 


third, 


sing., 


nom., 


4. 



Exercise. 



Parse the nouns: 



1. Henry has two Mexican dollars. 2. The Italian consul de- 
manded ao explanation. 3. That German steamer brought a 
cargo of French and British merchandise into port. 4. George, I 
wish you would procure for me a bar of Swedish iron and a Turkish 
cutlass. 5. The storm's fury is past. G. The defeat of Xerxes' 
army was the downfall of Persia. 

Capitals. — Adjectives formed from proper nouns should begin 
with capitals ; a s , Roman, Italian, Persian. 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THE PEONOUN. 

1. A Pronoun is a part of speech which is used to 
represent a noun. 

The Antecedent of a pronoun is the noun, or equivalent expres- 
sion, instead of which the pronoun is used. 

2. A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun that by its 
form marks person. It distinguishes the speaker, the 
person spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of. 



f Personal: /, thou, or you, he, she, it. 
Relative: Who, which, what, that, as. 
Interrogative: Who ? which ? what ? 
Possessive: Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs. 



Pronouns - 



3. The Simple Personal Pronouns are /, thou or 
you, he, she and it, with their declined forms. 

You is plural in form and requires a verb in the plural even 
when it represents a singular noun. 

Mine and thine were formerly used before words commenc- 
ing with a vowel sound, in preference to my and thy. They are 
still used thus in poetry. 

Thou, thy, thine, thee, thyself, and ye, though used in the 
sacred writings, are now seldom used except in poetry and in 
solemn style. They may be regarded as antiquated forms. 

We is often used in place of I when the writer or speaker wishes 
to avoid the appearance of egotism. 

Examples. —We formerly agreed with him but we have changed our 
mind. " We, Louis XIV., King of France, do proclaim." 



ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS . 201 

It is sometimes used as the subject without referring to any 
particular antecedent. 

Examples. — It rains; It 8eeui9 tome; It la cold. 

Since the English language is destitute of a pronoun of the 
third person singular aud common gender, usage sanctions the 
employment of the masculine forms he, his, him, for that pur- 
pose. 

Examples. —In speaking to the pupils generally, we say, " Every pupil 
should prepare his lesson carefully." " No pupil should be found who has 
not done his whole duty. 

4. When pronouns of different persons are used in 
the same sentence, 

(1) The second person singular should precede the third: 

You and he may go. 

(2) The third person singular should precede the first: 

He and I will meet you. 

(3) The first person, the second person, the third person, 
is the order when the pronouns are plural: We, 
you and they depart soon. 

A LETTER. 

My Dear Father, — 

You were kind enough to promise me, when I 
left home, that you would give me anything in reason that I chose 
to request, when I had gone through the first book of Caesar. My 
teacher is ready to certify that I have won the promised reward. 
And now, dear father, my request is that I be allowed to come 
home for one week. I have studied faithfully all this term, and 
my preceptor i- perfectly willing to allow me this boon, if you are 
also willing. I long with a homesick heart to embrace you all, 
and am certain thai I shall improve more rapidly after a few days 
of entire rest from brain work. Hoping to see you soon, 
T remain, 

Your lovinir son, 

Henry. 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. The Compound Personal Pronouns are formed 
by adding self or selves to some form of the Simple 
Personals. 

The Compound Personal Pronouns are declined as 
follows : 

FIRST PERSON. 

Singular. i Plural. 

Norn, and Obj. Myself. | Norn, and Obj. Ourselves. 

SECOND PERSON. 
Singular. , Plural. 

Norn, and Obj. Thyself or Yourself. | Norn, and Obj. Yourselves. 
THIRD PERSON. 

Singular. 

MAS., FEM. AND NEUT. 

C Himself, 
Norn, and Obj. < Herself, 
( Itself. 

The compound personal pronouns are used in the nominative and 
objective cases only. 

5. A Relative Pronoun is used to represent a pre- 
ceding word or phrase called its antecedent, to which 
it joins a modifying clause. : 

The Simple Relative Pronouns are who, which, what, that and 
as. They do not vary in person and number. 

Who is applied to persons, which to animals and inanimate 
things, that to persons and things, what to things. 

Remark. — Relatives serve two purposes in a sentence; one to repre- 
sent nouns; the other to join a modifying clause to the antecedent. 
What and that have no declension. 

Declension of Who. 

f Nom. who 
Singular and Plural. 1 Poss. whose 
L Obj. whom 



Plural. 
Nom. and Obj. Themselves , 



ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUN8. 203 

Remark.— Thai and What are frequently used as definitive adjec- 
tives ; as, That boy took your book. What kind of paper do you want ? 

Who is sometimes used for he that; as, 

" Who steals my purse steals trash." — Shakespeare. 

Declension of Which. 

f Nom. which 

Singular and Plural. \ Poss. whose 

I Obj. which 

Which formerly applied to persons as well as to things. 

Remark. — Ben Jonson speaks of "our one relative which." Addison, 
two centuries later, pleads for the use olwho and which, as against the in- 
troduction of the relative that. 

What is sometimes used for that which. Besides 
being a relative, it is used as 

(1) An interrogative pronoun: What did you say? 

(2) A definitive adjective: What day is this? 

(3) An interjection: What! have you lost your wits? 

(4) An adverb: " What (partly") by force, and what by fraud, he 
secures his ends." 

6. An Interrogative Pronoun is a pronoun em- 
ployed in asking questions. 

Who, which and what, when used in asking questions, are 

called interrogative pronouns; as, Who did this? Which is the 
book? What do you want ? 

Remark. - The Subsequent of an Interrogative Pronoun is that pari 
of theanswer which is represented by it. It corresponds to the antecedent 
of the relative pronoun. 

The interrogatives, who and which, are declined like the corre- 
sponding relatives. (Page 13.) 

7. The Compound Relatives are formed by adding 
ever, so and soever to the simple relatives. They are 
whoever, whoso, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, 
whatever and whatsoever. 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Whoever, ivhoso and whosoever, are equivalent to he who, or 
any one who. Whichever and whichsoever are equivalent to any 
which. Whatever and whatsoever are equivalent to any thing which. 

Examples. — Whoever studies will learn;" i.e.," Any one who studies 
will learn." " Whichever way you may take will lead to the city;" i. e., 
" Any way which you may take," etc. " I am pleased with whatever you may 
do;" i. e., " I am pleased with any thing which you may do." 

The Compound Relatives are indeclinable. They retain the 
same form in all the cases in which they are used. 

A compound relative pronoun is generally equivalent to two words — a 
relative and its antecedent. In the analysis the two words should be 
used instead of the compound relative. 

Possessive Pronouns are words used to represent 
both the possessor and the thing possessed. 

Examples.- Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours. 

To denote emphatic distinction, my own is used for mine, his 
own for his, thy own for thine, our own for ours, your own for yours, 
their own for theirs. 

Examples.— Each pupil should have his own pencil; This house is my 
own; Stand, the ground is your own. 

Two sets of models are given for parsing Possessive Pronouns. 
Both are sanctioned by good authorities. (Page 84). 

The Properties of a pronoun are Gender, Person, 
Number, and Case. 

Remark. — A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, person 
and number, but its case depends upon the structure of the sentence. 

Punctuation. — The members of a compound sentence, if long, or 
if their parts are set off by commas, should be separated by semicolons, 
even when joined by connectives . 



ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 



205 



Analyze the following sentence, using this as a model: 
"Whoever asks a favor of you should be treated with kind- 
ness. M 



(_H. 



E. I . 



should be B.13. 



treated B 



.23. ) 



(W hoever ) 



with 



kindness R.7. 



( who 



asks 13. 



favor 6 



_ ) 



of 



you R.7. ) 



In this sentence, whoever is equivalent to lie who. He is 
the subject of the principal sentence; should be is the copula; 
treated is the prelicate. He is modified by the subordinate sentence or 
clause of which who is the subject; asks is the predicate; favor is the 
object. 

LETTER OF INTRODUCTION. 

&t4> wvzf -mticri ed feewiea /ite^te/, 



r 



/. 



<2-i#(t ryitr^ 



'7 



REMARKS.— It is not customary to seal a letter of Introduction. 



Itd&M . 



206 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



l a I shall give you whatever you ask. 2. Call to your assist- 
ance whomever you want. 3. Whoso breaketh the law is not wise. 

4. Whatsoever ye shall ask in my name that will I give unto you. 

5. We may ask what (that which) we want. 

ORDER OF PARSING THE PRONOUN. 



Pron. 


Class. 


Gender. 


Person. 


Number. 


R 




Case. 


R 




Personal 


Masculine 


First 


Singular 


Nominat. 




Relative 


Feminine 


Second 


Plural 


9 




Possessive 


3 




Interrogative 


Common 


Third 








Objective 






Possessive 


Neuter 















Eule 9. — Pronouns must agree with their anteced- 
ents in person, gender and number, 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

1. He himself is responsible for the accident. 

2. Anna, the prize is yours, 

3. Every person should love his friends. 

4. It is extremely cold to-day. 



Pronoun. 


Class. 


Gender. 


Person. 


Number. 


R 

9 


Case. 


R 

1 


" He," 


pers., 


masc, 


third, 


sing., 


nom. 


"Himself," 


pers. comp., 


masc, 


third, 


sing., 


9 


nom. 


4 


"Yours," 


poss., 


fern., 


second, 


sing., 


9 


nom. 


2 


"His," 


pers., 


masc, 


third, 


sing., 


9 


poss. 


3 


"It," 


pers., 


neut., 


third, 


sing., 


9 


nom. 


1 



" Whoever asks a favor of you should be treated with kind- 
ness." 

Whoever* is a pronoun; relative; compound; it is equivalent to he 
who. 

He is a pronoun; personal; masculine; third; singular (to 

agree with its antecedent), Rule 9; (subject of the 
verb, should be, therefore) nominative, R. 1. 



SYNTAX PRONOUNS. 



207 



Who. 



• is a pronoun; relative; simple; masculine; third; 
singular, Rule ( j; nominative, Rule 1. 



Xomi native. , 



Cases. 1 p ossessive. 



Objective. 



Subject, R. 1. 
Predicate, R. 2. 
Independent, R. 5. 

Modifies a Noun, R. 3. 
Modifies a Participle, R. 8. 

Object of a Transitive Verb, R. 6. 
Object of a Preposition, R. 7 
Subject of an Infinitive, R. 16. 



Rule 1. — A noun or pronoun, used as the subject 
of a sentence, is in the nominative case. 

Correct the following sentences, using this as a model: 
•'None of his companions is more beloved than him." 



c 



None B.l. 



beloved B.2S. 



( more j 



) 



( than ) 



c 



him B.l. be 



(is) 



:> 



If ini i- ;i violation of Rule 1; it should have the nominative form, 
t\v. Page 13.) 

1. Who did he want? 2. Her and her brother are 

older than me. 3. I have never seen larger appl<> 

than them. i. Whom besides Hilda do you suppose re- 

•1 a prize? 5. Them that sock wisdom, shall find it. 

8, I am a- tall as she, but he is taller than her. 7. Him that we 

accuse is now present. 8. No other student is mop- Industrious 



208 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



than her. 9. Who swept the room? — Us girls. 10. Who wants 
a book? — Me. 

2. I know not whom else are invited. 2. What were you and 
him talking about? 3. Whom do you suppose has come to see us? 
4. You did fully as well as me. 5. We grieve not as them that 
have no hope. 6. Whom shall I say called? 7. Thrice is he 
armed who hath his quarrel just: and him but naked, though 
locked up in steel, whose conscience with injustice is corrupted. 
8. I do not think such persons as him competent to judge. 

Direction.— After having parsed all the pronouns in the foregoing ex- 
ercises review the work on pages thirty and eighty-five. A few poetic selec- 
tions from the readers may also be used. 

PROMISSORY NOTE. 

/'** 'So C@6**4»^ <$., Qtfay, £0, /*f4. 

<ai £e/#.<L<e C^A^t J20, /&&£, f&<t ua/u-e 

50 

100 



6'e<ce£u>e 



44 



<a / £t.€i'id. 



'&&€iin> C/fg. ( &$£e<tZ'Ci, 



*<?*ik 



JOINT NOTE. 






SYNTAX PRONOUNS . 20 9 

Rule 6. The object of a transitive verb is in the 
objective case (and should have the objective form). 

The subject — verb — object — is the natural order of arrange- 
ment, but iu poetic composition, aud often for the sake of rhetor- 
ical effect the object is placed first. 

Examples.- l'oul can destroy; Myself I can save; Lands and houses 
have I none. 

The interrogative, or relative pronoun, should be placed at the 
head of its clause. (Pages 17, 22, 82.) 

Examples. — Whom did you see? I am he whom you betrayed. 

The object of a transitive verb may be a noun, a pronoun, a 
phrase or a clause. (Pages 49, 53, 57.) 

Examples.- Caesar conquered Gaul; His ambition conquered him; The 
natives tried to destroy us. I thought that we should never see you again. 

A transitive verb may have several objects connected by con- 
junctions. 

Examples. — The company owns houses, stores, mills, factories, steam - 
-, railroads and whole forests of pine timber; He sells watches and 
clocks and household furniture. 

Punctuation, — Words of like construction should be separated 
by commas when and is omitted. 

Analyse and correct the following sentences: 

11 He who did the mischief you should punish." 



( You B.l. should punish 4*^ B.6. him J 



I 



( who li.l. did mischiel 11.6, ) 



the 



He la a violation of Bale '•; it should have, the objective form, him. 
(Page 17.) 

1. Who shall I call to your assistance? 2. We seldom know who, 
but some one. frequently removes our books. 3. George and Char- 
lesandisawhe and his brother at the tabic t. lie and Henry 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

met she and his cousin. 5. Him and you should be at school to- 
day. 6. I and him and you also have been summoned to appear. 

Punctuation.— Nouns and pronouns in the nominative absolute 
case by pleonasm or direct address, should be separated from the rest 
of the sentence by commas. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

1. An Adjective is a word that describes or points 
out a noun. 

Adjectives may be divided into two general classes : Descriptive 
and Definitive* (Page 10.) 

2. A Descriptive Adjective describes a noun by 
denoting some quality belonging to it. 

Remark.-Nouns are frequently used as adjectives and adjectives as 
nouns. (Page 24.) 

When a descriptive adjective represents a noun understood the 
article must be prefixed. 

Examples. — The great are not always good ; The wise are generally 
good. 

3. Adjectives derived from verbs are called Parti 
cipidl Adjectives. 

Examples. — We found a flowing spring in the forest; Henry came 
across the plowed field. 

An adjective is frequently modified by a word joined to it by 
hyphen, thus forming a Compound Adjective. 

Examples. — He has a high-sounding title ; It is an ill-kept house. 

4. A Proper Adjective is an adjective derived from 
a proper noun. 

Examples. —The French treaty; The Irish cause; They import Spanish 
wines and Arabian coffee ; Those are American goods. 

Capitals. — Begin with capitals all adjectives formed from proper 
nouns. 



ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 211 

5. A Definitive Adjective defines or points out a 
noun without describing it. 

Definitive Adjectives may be divided iuto three classes : Articles, 
Pronominal Adjectives and Numeral Adjectives. 

6. The Definite Article, "The," is so named because 
it definitely points out an object. 

Examples. — The lamp is on the table ; The boy went into the garden. 

7. The Indefinite Article, "A" or "An," is so 

named because it defines or points out an object in an 
indefinite or general manner. 

Examples. — A lamp is on a table ; A boy went into a garden. 

Rule. — A should be used before words beginning with a con- 
tonant sound; An, before words beginning with vowel sound. 

Examples. — An orange, a rock, an hour — h is silent; a unit — unit 
begins with the consonant sound of y; such a one — one begins with the 
consonant sound of w. 

B. A Pronominal Adjective is an adjective that per- 
forms the office of certain pronouns ; that is, it may 
be used with a noun, or it may represent the noun. 

Pronominal Adjectives may be divided into three classes: 
Demonstratives , Distributives and Indefinites. 

9. Demonstrative Adjectives point out objects defi- 
nitely. 

Examples. — This, (hat, these, those, former, latter, both, same, yon, yonder. 

This (^plural these) points out an object as near in place or 
time. That (plural those) points out an object as not near, or qo! 

so near as some other object. (Page 34.) 

Examples.— This desk Ifl mine; That desk over there is yours. These 
books are mine; those books in the office are yours. Those peaches on the 
tree are larger than thesem your basket. 

Former and Latter are used to designate which of two objects 
previously mentioned La referred to. 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Examples.- You spoke of Perroni andDodson: the former an Italian 
and the latter a Canadian. 

Both implies the one and the other; Same denotes an identical 
object or one of the like kind. 

Examples.-Mft houses are built of the same stone. George and 
Henry were both at school on that same day. 

10. Distributive Adjectives represent objects as 
taken separately. 

Examples. — Each of us will give a little ; Every one of you should aid 
us ; Either this or that will do ; Neither one of the two is satisfactory. 

Each may be applied to one of any number of objects; Either 
should be applied to one of two objects only; Neither means not 
either of two. 

Examples.- Each of the pupils in this class; Either of the two boys; 
Each of you all and either of you two; Which of the two will you take? one? 
both? or neither? 

11. The Indefinite Pronominal Adjectives refer 
to objects in a general way, without pointing out any 
one in particular. 

Examples. —All, any, another, certain, divers, enough, few, little, many, 
much, no, none, one, own, other, several, some, sundry. 

All defines objects as taken together. Any denotes a single one 
of many. 

Examples.-^// of the men had gone to the field; Have you any horses 
to sell? 

Certain denotes one or some. Divers means unlike, numerous, 
various. Another, or other means not the same. Enough denotes 
a sufficiency. 

Examples. — There was a certain young man in the assembly ; Divers 
miracles; We took another road; He gave them to other people; Indeed, we 
have heard enough. 

Few denotes a small number. Little means small in quantity, 
amount or duration. Many denotes a large number. Much denotes 
a large quantity. 



ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVES. 218 

Examples.— They have but few friends; The soldiers found but little 
rest that night; lie lias many friends and much money. 

No means not any. None means not one. Several indicates 
any small number more than two. Some denotes an intermediate 
number or quantity. 

Examples. — No trace of life can be found in the rocks of that ancient 
period; None remained after sunset; Several people stood looking on; 
Some were excited, others calm. 

12. Numeral Adjectives are those which give ex- 
pression to number and order definitely. 

Cardinal Numerals simply express the number of objects. 

Examples.- One, six, thirty, nineteen, five hundred, a thousand. 
Ordinal Numerals indicate the position of an object in a series. 
Examples.- Fourth, tenth, fiftieth, thirteenth, the thousandth. 

Multiplicative Numerals express how many fold. 

Examples. — Twofold, fourfold, tenfold aud one hundredfold. 

The adjective phrases, such a (an), many a (an), only a (an), but a (aw), and 
not a (an), define singular nouns only. Each such phrase should be treated 
in analysis as a single word. (Page 19.) 

Each other and one another are sometimes called reciprocals, 

because they are reciprocally related. 

Examples. — We help one another; they naturally assist each other. 
Remark. — The phrases, each other and one another may in each case be 
treated as a single word. 

13. Adjectives which vary in form to denote num- 
ber, should agree in that property with the nouns they 
limit. (Page 34.) 

Examples. — This sort, that sort, this kind, that kind; not these sort, those 
sort, etc., which are incorrect. 

14. Comparison is a change in the form of an ad- 
jective to express different degrees'of quality or quan- 
tity. 

1 xampl«'H. — Bard, harder, hardest; good, better, best; soft, softer, softest; 
beautiful, more beautiful, mo&A f»-u>Uiful. 



214 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



15. There are three Degrees of Comparison ; the 

Positive, the Comparative, the Superlative. 

The Positive degree ascribes to an object the simple quality; as, 

^Heisawise man." 

The Comparative degree ascribes to one of two objects a higher 
or lower degree of the quality than that expressed by the positive ; 
as, "He is a wiser man." 

The Superlative degree ascribes the highest or lowest degree 
of the quality to one of more than two objects; as, " He is the 

wisest of all the men." 



Adjectives. 



Descriptive. 



f Positive (Page 35). 

I 

«j Comparative. 

I Superlative. 



Articles. 



Definite. 
Indefinite. 



f Demonstrat. 

Definitive. -I Pronominals. ] ? i ^ tr fi ib . u t ti a ves - 

I Indefinites* 

f Cardinals. 

-Numerals. -| Ordinals. 

Multiplicatives. 

Adjectives denoting qualities which cannot exist in different de- 
grees can not, with propriety, be compared; they are, however, 
sometimes used in the comparative and superlative degrees. 

Examples. — Dead, empty \ right, level, square, straight, perpendicular, 
equal, naked, honest, sincere, hollow. 

Some words denote a high degree of the quality without imply- 
ing comparison. 



ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVES. 215 

Examples. — Exceedingly, altogether , far, by far, vastly, much, very, a 
most, a little, too, very, slightly, greatly. 

16. The Comparative of adjectives of one syllable 
is commonly formed by adding er to the positive, and 
the Superlative by adding est. 

Examples. — Great, greater, greatest; high, higher, highest. 

17. Adjectives of more than one syllable are gen- 
erally compared by means of the adverbs more and 

most. 

Examples. — Honorable, more honorable, most honorable; worthy, more 
worthy, most worthy. 

Most adjectives of two syllables ending in y or Ze, after a 
consonant, form their comparative and superlative degrees like 
monosyllables. 

Examples. — Gentle, gentler, gentlest; holy, holier, holiest. 

Some adjectives follow no general rule in the formation of their 
comparative and superlative degrees. 

Examples. — Handsome, handsomer, handsomest; narrmr, narrower, 
narrowest. 

18. The degrees of diminution are expressed by the 
adverbs less and least. 

Examples. — Noble, less noble, least noble; wise, less wise, least wise. 

Gentlemen, — 

I regret that it is not in my power to settle my account with you 
as usual on the first of the year. The general husiness depression in this vi- 
cinity has made it very difficult for me to collect, and consequently T am 
much embarrassed. I think, however, that I can safely promise you half, if 
not the whole sum, within a month, if you will give me that time to press my 
own claims. 

Your- very respectfully, 

w . M \\ [LCOX. 



216 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



The following are some of the adjectives that are compared 



irregularly : 








POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


Good, 


better, 




best. 


Bad, ill, evil, 


worse, 




worst. 


Little, 


less, 




least. 


Much, many, 


more, 




most. 


Near, 


nearer, 




nearest. 


Old, 


older or 


elder, 


oldest or eldest, 


Late, 


later or 


latter, 


latest or last. 


Nigh, 


nigher ( 


near) , 


nighest, next. 



Two or more adjectives modifying the same word may be com- 
pared by prefixing more and most to the first. 

Examples. — Most potent, grave and reverend gentlemen ; The more nice 
and elegant parts. 

Punctuation. — Adjective, participial, appositive, and absolute 
phrases, should be separated from the context by commas. 



EXERCISES. 

Correct the sentences in the following series of paragraphs and 
assign the reason for the correction: 

1. Ordinal numeral adjectives should generally be 
placed before cardinals. 

1. Memorize the four first rules. 2. Sing the three first verses. 
3. Are there three first verses'* 4. You may have the two first 
trees in the row, 5. My uncle built the five first houses on this 
street. 

2. Double comparatives and double superlatives 
should be avoided. 

1. More sharper than a serpent's tooth is vile ingratitude. 2. 
This was the most unkindest cut of all. 3. George seems more 
cheerfuller to-day. 4. This is far more preferable than that. 
5. Worser evils than war can hardly be imagined. 



ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVES. 217 

3. The is used to denote a particular one or to distin- 
guish one class from another. A denotes one, and 
that not a particular one. 

1. The subject of his conversation was a steam engine. 2. A 
carriage which you saw belongs to Henry. 3. The dime is the 
tenth part of the dollar. 4. A locomotive is a modern invention- 
5. The owl is the bird of prey. 6. A lion is the king of beasts. 

4. A should not be used before vowel sounds. An 

should not be used before consonant sounds. 

1. She is an heroine. 2. We are a united people. 3. Daniel is 
an humorous boy. 4. That is now established as a historical 
fact. (An should be used before h when the following syllable 
is accented.) 

5. The article should be omitted before a word used 
as a title, or as a mere name. 

1. What kind of a man is he? 2. They gave him the title of a 
duke. 3. A rascal at one time meant a servant. 4. He felt a sort of 
a misgiving about it. 5. He is a better druggist than a musician. 

6. Adverbs should never be used as adjectives. 

1. Things look more favorably since your return. 2. I under- 
stand that he arrived safely. 3. The relative should be placed as 
nearly as possible to its antecedent. 4. Brother felt badly this 
morning. 5. The mountains look beautifully in spring. 6. This 
peach tastes sweetly. 

7. Care should be used in selecting such adjectives 
as express the exact meaning intended. 

1. There are less horses on the market now than formerly. 2 
There were not fewer than ten tons of salt on the bridge when it 
went down. 3. Every member are expected to contribute liberally. 
4. I will sell either of the four boats for ten dollars. 5. Neither 
of my three brothers went to college. G. He paid all of the labor- 
ers two dollars a day. 7. None of the two horses pleases me. 8. 
They worship both the sun, moon, and stars. 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

THE VERB. 

1. A Verb is a word which expresses being, action, 

or state. 

Verbs are divided, with respect to their form, into four classes: 
regular, irregular, redundant, and defective. 

2. A Regular Verb is a verb that forms its past 
tense and perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 

Examples.-— I love, I loved, I have loved. 

3. An Irregular Verb is a verb that does not form 
its past tense and the perfect participle by assuming 
d or ed. 

Examples. — I see, I saw, I have seen; I break, I broke, I have broken; I 
draw, I drew, I have drawn. 

4. A Redundant Verb is a verb that forms its past 
tense or perfect participle in two or more ways, and 
so as to be both regular and irregular. 

Examples. —I dream, I dreamed, I have dreamed; I^dream, I dreamt, I 
have dreamt. 

5. A Defective Verb is a verb that forms no parti- 
ciples, and is used in but few of the moods and tenses. 

Examples. — Beware, from be and aware, used mostly in the imperative 
mode, as " Beware the awful avalanche ! " Ought used in both present and 
past tenses; as " I know I ought to go," (now) ; " I knew he ought to have 
gone," (then). Quoth used for said; as " ' Not I,' quoth Sancho." Wit in 
the sense of know; as, " To wit" i. e., namely. 

The Auxiliaries are also defective, wanting the perfect partici- 
ple. They are: do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, must. 

Remark. — Do, be, have, and will are often used as principal verbs; as, 
" He does well;" "I am;" "We have cares and anxieties: " " He willed me a 
portion of his fortune." 

The auxiliaries were originally used as principal verbs, fol- 
lowed by the infinitives of what are now called the principal verbs- 
Examples. —He has [to] come; They may [to] go; 



ETYMOLOGY VERBS . 219 

6. Verbs are divided, as regards their grammatical 
meaning , into three classes: transitive, intransitive, 
and copulative. 

7. A Transitive Verbis a verb that expresses action 
communicated from a subject to an object. ( Page 8. ) 

Examples. — Henry saw a black fox in the forest. 

8. Voice is a modification of transitive verbs which 
distinguishes their subject as acting upon an object, 
or as being acted upon. 

The Active Voice is that form of the verb in which the subject 
acts upon an object. 

The Passive Voice is that form of the verb in which the sub- 
ject is acted upon. 

Examples. — Wolf e defeated Montcalm; Montcalm was defeated by 
Wolfe. 

9. An Intransitive Verb is a verb that expresses 
being, or state, or action not communicated to an ob- 
ject. 

Examples. — The bird sings; The child sleeps. 

A verb only in the third person singular and with the pronoun 

it, is called a Unipersonal Verb. 

Examples. — It rai ns; It seems good; Methinks — it thinks me — it ap- 
pears to me. 

The form methinks is erroneously considered an affectation for 
I think. On the contrary, it is a remnant of a whole class of 
unipersonal verbs employed in older stages of the language. 

10. A Copulative Verb is one which is used to join 
a predicate to a subject and to make an assertion. 

Example**.— Henry is confident of success; Henry was appointed; 
Henry seems determined. (Page 43.) 

THE PARTICIPLE. 

A. Participle is a word which is derived from a 
verb and which partakes of the properties of a verb 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and of an adjective or a noun. 

Remark. — The Participle is a form of the verb that may be used as a 

noun or adjective. (Page 62.) 

Theje are three Participles : the Present, the Perfect, and the 
Compound. 

The Present Participle denotes the continuance of 
action, being, or state 

Examples.— Seeing, being seen; loving, being loved. 

The Perfect Participle denotes the completion of 
action or event. 

Examples.- Loved, written, appointed, seen, built, known. (Page 20.) 

The Compound Participle denotes the completion 
of an action or event at or before the time represented 
by the principal verb. 

Examples. — Having sold his horse, he walked home. 

The present participle always ends in ing. The perfect participle 
ends in d, ed, t, n or en. It is frequently used as an adjective but 
never as a noun. (Page 62.) The compound participle is formed 
by placing having or having been before the perfect participle. 

ORDER OF PARSING. 

1. A Participle, and why? 

2. From what verb is it derived? 

3. Present, perfect, or compound, and why? 

4. How is it used? 

5. Rule. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

1. " We heard the owls screaming in the wilderness. " 
Screaming. . is a participle derived from the verb "scream:" 
present participle, and it modifies owls. Rule 12. 



ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 221 

2. ".The storm having passed they resumed their journey." 
Having passed ... is a participle derived from the verb 

"pass;" compound participle and it modi- 
fies storm. Rule 12. 

3. u Bowing is delightful." 

Rowing is a participle derived from the verb "row:" 

as a noun it is used as the subject of is; nom- 
inative case. Rule 1. 

4. *' Their commander having been killed, the soldiers fled." 
Having been killed is a participle derived from the verb " kill:" 

compound participle, and it modifies com- 
mander. Rule 12. 
Direction. — Select parsing exercises on page 62 and the follow- 
ing pages. (Page 20.) 

MODE. 

1. Mood is the manner in which the act or state is 
expressed with reference to its subject, 

2. There are five modes: the Indicative, Subjunc- 
tive, Potential, Imperative, and Infinite. 

3. The Indicative Mood denotes what is real. A 
verb in the indicative mood expresses an actual occur- 
rence or asks a question. 

Example. — Alexander the Great conquered the world ; Did Alexander 
conquer the world? (Page 00.) 

The indicative mode may be used in exclamatory sentences; 
also, in subordinate sentences to denote what is actual, or what 
La assumed as actual. 

Example. — I understand that you have returned to the country ; The 

■A hat destroyed my work. 

A doubt, condition, or inference, assumed as a fact musl also be 

in the indicative mood. 

Examples. — if I wat deceived 1 did not know n ; if i am deceived, I am 

ruined; This will cau-e you trouble, when he return-. 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. The Subjunctive Mode, which is generally found 
in subordinate or modifying sentences, is used to ex- 
press a condition, & doubt, a wish, a motive, a supposi- 
tion, or a possibility . 

Examples. — If this be true, he must go at once; I shall leave if he 
remain; I wish that he ivere you. (Page 70.) 

Explanation. — The subjunctive mode is so named because it 
is used in subjoined or modifying clauses. 

The subordinate conjunctions if, though, list, except, unless, until, 
that, and some others are used in joining the modifying clause to 
the word modified in the principal sentence and are called the 
signs of the subjunctive. 

The sign is frequently omitted, in which case the auxiliary or 
copula precedes the subject. 

Examples.— Were I he; i. e. If I were he; Had I time I would aid you, 
i. e. If I had time I would aid you. 

Remark. — In subjunctive clauses the subjunctive form of the verb 
should be used when it is intended to express doubt or denial; the indica- 
tive mode when the thing supposed is a fact or is assumed to be a fact. 

Subjunctive. — If he go, I shall remain (doubt); If he were honest, he 
would pay you (denial) ; Had he been there, I should have seen him (denial). 

Indicative. —If he goes, I shall remain; If he was present, he did his 
duty (neither doubt nor denial implied.) 

The subjunctive and the plural form of verbs are identical in 
all except the verb to be, hence the rule : (Page 71.) 

The Potential Mode expresses possibility , liberty, 
necessity, duty or liability . 

Examples. — He can write; You must go; George should be more careful ; 
They may now retire. (Page 101.) 

The potential mode, like the indicative, is used in interrogative 
and exclamatory sentences; also, in subordinate sentences to 
represent what is assumed as actual. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 223 

Example*. — Can you accompany me? Wo know that we may be disap- 
pointed; He says t hat I may study history. (Page 90.) 

The Auxiliaries may, can, must, might, could, icould, 
and should are called the signs of the potential mode. 

The auxiliary % can or could implies ability or power within 
one's self. May or might implies an agency that may be without 
or beyond one's self ; hence, permission, probability, or possibility. 

Examples. — I can read ; we could do it at one time ; he may go now ; O, 
that he might return. 

The auxiliary must denotes obligation or necessity. Should 
indicates that the action is not dependent upon the will of the 
actor but upon that of another; hence, obligation or duty, 
(Page 19.) 

Examples. — You must obey the rules; he should love, houor and obey 
his parents; I must remain; it is necessary. 

The Imperative Mood expresses command, entreaty, 
desire, request, or exhortation: 

Examples. — " Blow, blow, thou winter icind!" " Give us this day our 
dally bread ;" " Do come to see us ;" " Arise, go forth, and conquer as of old." 

Explanation. — The imperative mode indicates a command 
when a superior speaks to an inferior; an exhortation, when an 
equal speaks to an equals a prayer or supplication, when an infe- 
rior addresses a superior. 

The imperative mode may usually be known by the 

omission of the subject. 

Examples. — Come one, come all, i. e. t One of you oome t all of you (some; 

L(t Kdna come, i. e., Permit, thou Kdna to come. Sing to the Lord, i. c, L< ( 
,u r to the Lord. Ruin seize thee, ruthless king. Proceed we therefore 
to our subject. 

The Imperative mode ISOfteil used to express a wish, a precau- 
tion, a grant or a demand. 

Examples. - Give me a book; Watch him, he is treacherous ; Let it hi- 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

lawful, that law do do wrong; Let it be granted; Look, that he hide no 
weapon. 

The Infinite Mode is that form of the verb which is 
used as a noun, adjective, or adverb. 

There are two infinitives ; the present and the per- 
fect- 

Remark, — Transitive verbs have both in each voice; thus making/owr 
forms in all. (Page 52.) 

The Present Infinitive denotes the act or state as 
present or future in regard to the word on which the 
infinite depends. 

Examples. —He seems to enjoy life; To love is to obey; " Man never Is, 
but always to be blest." — Pope. 

The present infinitive consists of to, combined with the simplest 
form of the verb; or of to be, with a simple participle. 

The Perfect Infinitive represents the act or state as 
completed at the time referred to. 

Examples. — They seem to have come through the rain ; He ought to 
have gone before dark. (Page 59.) 

The perfect infinitive consists of to have, or have been, combined 
with a simple participle. 

Examples. — To have written, to have been writing, to have been 
written. 

The perfect infinitive is so combined with the verb ought, and sometimes 
with the verb have or was, that the whole expression is equivalent in time 
to the past perfect potential; as," I ought to have gone." And in the idiom, 
"I had like to have fallen overboard." — Swift, And, probably, " I was to 
have gone" implying, " I did not go." 

TENSE. 

1. Tense is that property of verbs which shows the 
distinction of time. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 225 

There are three divisions of time: Past, Present and Future. 
Each division has two tenses: an absolute and a relative. 

The Absolute Tenses are the Present, the Past and the Future. 
They denote indeliuite or incomplete action. 

The Relative Tenses are the Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, and 
the Future Perfect. They denote completed action. 

2. The Present Tense represents an action or event 
in present time. 

Examples. — The wind is blowing a fearful blast; The bird sings. 

The present tense is used in expressing a general truth, or What 
is habitual. 

Examples. — Time and tide wait for no man ; The coach arrives with the 
mail at nine a. m. Perseverance conquers all things. 

The historical present is the present used for the past, to describe 
more vividly what took place in past time. 

Examples. — "Ulysses walks, not knowing where he was." — Pope. 
"The Turk advances under a storm of iron hail." "Mathew traces the de- 
scent of Joseph ; Luke traces that of Mary." 

3. The Present Perfect Tense represents an action 
or event as past, but connected with present time. 

Example. — George has finished his work. 

Have, the sign of the present perfect tense, originally denoted 
possession. As an auxiliary, it denotes completion. 

The present perfect potential is present or future in regard to 
the mood, and presents the act or state as relatively past. 

Examples.— Be has fallen from the bridge; The hunter has killed the 
wolf. 

4. Tli*.' Past Tense expresses what took place in time wholly 
past. 

Examples. —The bird was ilying. The boys read and the girls wrote. 



226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The past potential deuotes a duty or obligation, without refer- 
ence to time. 

Example. — Children should obey their parents. 

The past indicative, like the present, denotes what was habitual. 

Example. — They walked home every day. 

5. The Past Perfect Tense represents an action or 
event as completed in time fully past. 

Example. — Your friends had departed before we arrived. 

The past tense is generally used instead of the past perfect, to 
denote the completion of an act at or before a certain past time 
mentioned. 

Example. — Your friends left before midnight. 

6. The Future Tense represents an action or event 
in future time. 

Examples. — " The lion shall eat straw like the ox;" "I shall see you 
soon." 

Shall and will are the signs of the future tense. Shall, in the 
first person, and will, in the second and third persons, are generally 
employed to denote futurity. 

Examples.— We shall call to see you on Saturday; You will be pleased 
to hear the news. 

Shall expresses the action or event as a duty commanded ; Will, 
as something determined upon. 

Examples.-" Thou shalt not steal ; " I will not do it, come what may. 

7. The Future Perfect Tense represents an action 
as completed at or before a certain future time. 

Examples. — I shall have finished my work at noon to-day; We shall have 
departed before he arrives. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 227 



FORMS OF THE TERB. 

1. Verbs have five forms, which may be considered 
subdivisions of the tenses ; the Common, the Em- 
phalic, the Progressive, the Passive, and the Ancient, 
or Solemn Style. 

(1) Common Form. — I write; I shall write. 

(2) Emphatic Form. — They do write; He declared that he 

did not do it. 

(3) Progressive Form. — I dm writing; They had been 

rambling. 

(4) Passive Form. — The letter was written; He vms injured. 

(5) Ancient Form. — " So shalt thou rest;" "Thou art he 

whom they named to me;" "Thou art a pretty fellow." 

Remark. — The Ancient Form, or Solemn Style, is used in the Bible, 
in poetry, and sometimes in burlesque. It is never used in modern prose. 

PERSON AND NUMBER. 

1. The Person and Number of verbs are their modi- 
fication^ to mark their agreement with their subjects. 

Remark. — A verb must agree with its subject in person and number. 
(Page 32.) 

A subject in the second person singular, generally requires the 
verb, or its auxiliary, to end in t } st or est 

Examples. — " Thou canst not injure me;" "Thou shalt not steal;" 
" Thou lovedst me once." (Page 1)1 ) 

A subject in the third person singular! generally requires the 
verb, or its auxiliary, to end in s t es or eth. 

Kxnmph'H — ' Qod lorrtu his children ; '* " The horse runs; " " The boy 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CONJUGATION. 

1. The Conjugation of a verb is the proper combi- 
nation and arrangement of its parts. 

2. The Principal Parts of a verb are: the present 
indicative, the past indicative, and the perfect partici- 
ple. 

3. Synopsis of a verb is only an outline of it, which 
shows its parts in a single person and number, through 
the moods and tenses. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO BE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle. 

Be, or am. Was. Been. 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present, . . . lam. Past Perfect, . I had been. 

Present Perfect, I have been. Future, ... I shall be. 

Past, .... I was. Future Perfect, I shall have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present, . . . If I be. Past, . . . If I were. 

Past Perfect, . . If I had been. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present, ... I may, can, or must be. 

Present Perfect, I may, can or must have been. 

Past, .... I might, could, would, or should be. 

Past Perfect, . I might, could, wouid, or should have been. 



ETYMOLOGY - 



VERBS. 



229 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Be, or do thou be; Be, or do ye or you be. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, To be. Present Perfect, To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present, Being. Perfect, Been. Compound y Having been. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LOVE." 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
PRINCIPAL PARTS. 



Present Tense, 
Love, 



Perfect Participle. 
Loved. 



Past Tense. 
Loved. 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 



Present, ... I love. Past Perfect, . I had loved. 

Present Perfect, I have loved. Future, ... I shall love. 
Past, .... I loved. Future Perfect, I shall have loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



Present, 



If r love. 
Past Perfect, 



Past, . . . If I loved. 
. If I had Loved. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 



Present, ... I may, can, or must love. 

• nt Perfect, I may, can, or must have loved. 
Pastt .... I might, could, would, or should love. 
Past Perfect, . I might, could, would, or should have loved. 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

2. Love, or do thou love; 2. Love, or do ye or you love. 

INFINITE MODE. 
Present, To love. Present Perfect, To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Loving. Perfect, Loved. Compound, Having loved. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

The Passive Voice is farmed by prefixing, as an auxiliary, the 
various forms of the verb to be, to the perfect participle of a transi- 
tive verb. 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present, I am loved. 

Present Perfect, I have been loved. 

Past, I was loved. 

Past Perfect, I had been loved. 

Future, I shall be loved. 

Future Perfect, I shall have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present, . . If I be loved. Past, . . If I were loved. 

Past Perfect, If I had been loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present, I may be loved. 

Present Perfect, I may have been loved. 

Past, I might be loved. 

Past Perfect, I might have been loved. 



ETYMOLOGY 



VERBS, 



231 



REGULAR CONJUGATION. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 



Singular. 

1. I am loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 

3. He is loved; 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We are loved, 

2. You are loved, 

3. They are loved. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 



1. I have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 

3. He has been loved: 



1 . I was loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 

3. He was loved ; 



1. We have been loved, 

2. You have been loved, 

3. They have been loved. 



PAST TENSE. 



1. We were loved, 

2. You were loved, 

3. They were loved. 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 



1. I had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 

3. He had been loved ; 



1. We had been loved, 

2. You had been loved, 

3. They bad been loved. 



FUTURE TENSE. 



1. I shall be loved, 

2. Thou wilt be loved, 

.'.. He will be loved; 



1. We shall be loved, 

2. You will be loved, 

:;. They will be loved. 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 



i . I shall have been loved, 

2. Thou wilt have beeo loved, 

3. He. will have been loved; 



1. We Shall have been loved, 

2. Von will have bed) loved, 

3. They will have been loved. 



232 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



The subjunctive mood is usually introduced by the 
conjunctions if, though, that, unless, lest, except. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 



1. If I be loved, 

2. If thou be loved, 

3. If he be loved; 



1. If we be loved, 

2. If you be loved, 

3. If they be loved. 



PAST TENSE. 



Singular, 

1. If I were loved, 1. Were I loved, 

2. If thou wert loved, 

3. If he were loved ; 



2. Wert thou loved, 

3. Were he loved ; 



Plural. 

1. If we were loved, 

2. If you were loved. 

3. If they were loved. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



1. I may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be loved, 

3. He may be loved; 



1. We may be loved, 

2. You may be loved, 

3. They may be loved. 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 



1 . I may have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst have been loved, 

3. He may have been loved; 



1 . We may have been loved, 

2. You may have been loved, 

3. They may have been loved. 



PAST TENSE. 



1. I might be loved, 

2. Thou mightst be loved, 

3. He might be loved ; 



1. We might be loved, 

2. You might be loved, 

3. They might be loved. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 233 

PAST PKRFECT TKNSE. 

1. I might have been loved, 1. We might have been loved, 

2. Thou might st have been loved, 2. You might have been loved, 

3. He might have been loved; 3. They might have been loved . 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

2. 3e loved, or be thou loved; 2. Be loved, or be you loved. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, To be loved. Present Perfect, To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present, Being loved. Perfect, Loved. Compound, Having been loved. 

The Progressive, the Emphatic, aud the Interrogative are 
called the Coordinate Forms of Conjugation. 

SYNOPSIS. 

PROGRESSIVE FORM. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present, I am loving. 

Present Perfect, ... I have been loving. 

Past, I was loving. 

Past Perfect, .... I had been loving. 

Future, I shall be loving. 

Future Perfect, .... I shall have been loving. 

-l INJUNCTIVE MODI.. 

Present, . . If I be loving. Past, . . If I were loving. 

Past Perfect, . . . . If I had been loving. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present, I may be loving. 

Present Perfect^ . . . I may have been lovimr. 

Past, I might be loving. 

Past Perfect, .... I might have been loving, 



234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present, To be loving. Present Perfect, To have been loving. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present, ... Be thou loving. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Loving. Compound, Having been loving. 

Present, If I do love. Past, If I did love. 

INTERROGATIVE FORM. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present, .... Love I? Do I love? Am I loving? 

Present Perfect, . Have I loved? Have I been loving? 

Past, Loved I? Did I love? Was I loving? 

Past Perfect, . . Had I loved? Had I been loving? 

Future, .... Shall I love? Shall I be loving? 

Future Perfect . . Shall I have loved? Shall I have been loving? 

EXERCISES. 

Parse the verbs in the following sentences using the models on 
page 91 : 

1. The hunter hilled a bear. 2. The wind blows furiously. 3. 
The pigeon has been hilled by the boy. 4. I shall leave if you 
remain. 5. Do come to see us. 6. If this be true, all will end well. 
7. You can write. 8. O, that he might return, 9. He rose to speak. 
10. The man has fallen from the bridge. 11. If I had started 
sooner, I should have overtaken you. 12. We shall arrive at 
noon. 

1. Use the proper tense to express the relation of 

time implied in the statement. 

"They have visited us last week.' ' 

In this sentence a statement concerning an event in past time is made, 
therefore, the past tense form of the verb should be used, and the sentence 
should be, " They visited us last week." 

1. After I wrote the letter I took a walk. 2. Your son was tardy 
every day this week. 3. I know him more than a year. 4. They 
were under obligations to have assisted me. 5. George was absent 
all this afternoon. G. I shall live here six months next Tuesday. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 235 

2. Use the present tense form of the verb in giving 
expression to general truths or existing facts. 

" He proved that the earth was round." 

In this sentence it is the intention to give expression to a general truth, 
therefore, the present tense form of the verb should be used, and the sen- 
tence should be, " lie proved that the earth is round." 

1. Heat will radiate best from a rough surface. 2. I should 
think it was time for the bell to ring. 3. I have always thought 
that dew fell. 4. My teacher told me that every star was a sun. 
5. He did not know that cheese was made of milk. 

3. Shall should be used with the first person, and 
will with the second and third person, to denote a 
future action or event. 

Remark.— When it is desired to express determination or necessity 

in future time will should be used with the first person and sball with the 
second and third person. 

16 1 shall go; no one will prevent rae." 

In this sentence, determination is expressed, therefore the sentence 
should be, " I will go ;^no one shall prevent me." (Page 104.) 

1. Would we have a pleasant time if we should go? 2. If I 
would earn money, I would save it. 3. We will receive our share 
next Saturday. 4. I will not be at home to-morrow. 5. I should 
be sorry if you would be sick. 

4. In giving expression to a supposition, use the 
subjunctive form of the verb — the subjunctive mode — 
to denote doubt or denial, and the indicative to express 
a fact or any thing assumed as a fact. 

Indicative. — " Though he drives me from door, yet I will cling t<> 
him." This is assumed as a fact ; he does drive me. 

Subjunctive. — " Though hedrive me from his door, yet I will cling to 
him." This denotes doubt; he may drive me. 

1. If it rains, I shall not go. 2. If he promises In: will help 
you. 3. If he was rich he would be generous. 4. If lie is not 
engaged, he will accompany you. :>. If he play, he wins. <;. Un- 
less the miller grinds the wheat, we will have no flour. (Page 70.) 



( K M&tt-l jHzwl #ff /Ae Yd® tnd/. <tece€,ve€Z. 
O* '*z>&/e iscw&l wiM^ tUtty sl^dfeeefantz /tie G^r^^a^l <u?dd 
<u?f /rie 4>ec6n/ co-'nJ%a€Z4,€Z> / fc0-'ri>. O* ■a- y wz> dwi/^isLdet/ 

//&&,& /-ne <&ddi4>4,ed <letz>ttedl €zw tzt/e/t/to-vz^-z -a^M^t^t^^yi^e. 



dtt/etec/ -vest-ty <fov^€Z'£ -u?f tz-MT c&mte'lM^tt. \sf6 d&tzvitz 

&/i&le &e aww. (Qr/£e4'Z€w>de J O* ^ w&w dee /A a/ ^e^e 
caw t/& <z44'Wwnt,'n4Z . ^/h riv^t+e'Ztet, \s/?-l. J^^S-k^^ 
id 'W&v en/tri-e^if d€z/tdi&ei/ <wi,//i €^e €zdj>tf>d/?rie'ri&, ^e 6d 
tub /LV-eifif /& levwl'M, <?f4,<i fZ4>t&&3, aiviz we wtw/trs&e 
e 'Wi^wM, tt/i c/e <?wv<? 

? tz>wt&j&e't> i3$w^«? G&vdtttiZ'tzei 



SYNTAX VERBS. 237 

Bule 13. — A verb must agree with its subject in 
person and number. 

Are and were arc the only plural forms of the English verb, 
(to) be. Most verbs have but one person form, the third, made 
by adding s or es, in the common style. (Page 32.) 

In the solemn style, the second person singular takes the ending 
est, 8t, or t, and in the indicative present, the third person singu- 
lar adds eth. 

Examples. — Thou lovest me not these wintry days. Thou hast no 
friends. He hath no enemies. Thou art merciful, indeed. Wilt thou aid 
m e ? 

When the subject is a collective noun, conveying the plurality 
of idea, the verb should be pluraL 

Examples.— The cavalry were deployed on the plain. The peasantry 
wear ccarse cotton cloth. The multidude were of one mind. 

When the subject is a collective noun and the collection is con- 
sidered as one whole, the verb should be singular. 

Examples. — The number of people present was not ascertained. The 
committee favors our plan. Does the board of directors give you substantial 
aid? The army icas destroyed. 

When a subject, plural in form, represents a single thing, the 
verb must be singular. 

Examples.— The new of his defeat has been received; Optics is his study 

at present; Politics was Ms trade. (Page 77.) 

When the subject is a mere word or sign, an infinitive, or a 

clause, the verb should be in the third person singular. 

Examples. — " JfAo is there?" was heard from the thicket. Books is a 
plural Doun. _^_ is the sign of division. To deceive is wrong. 

The pronoun you, however, even when singular iu meaning, 
requires a verb and a pronoun of the plural form. 

Analyze the following sentences and justify the use of the italicized 
words: 

1. Ten cents is the price. 2. The wealthy are not always the 



238 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



most happy. 3. The committee were unable to agree, and they 
asked to be discharged. 4. The House has decided not to allow 

0rits members the privilege. 5. Five dollars is not too much. 
6. Twice as much is too much. 7. Two hours is a long time to 

• wait. 8. To relieve the wretched was his pride. 

Sometimes two or more words enter into the com- 
position of a connective. In such cases the several 
words must be taken together, treated as one con- 
junction, and placed in the same circle in the dia- 
gram . 

Examples. — As well as, as if, not only, but also, except that, for as much as, 
but likewise, notwithstanding that. 

il The father, as well as the sons, were in fault." 



( 



father B r 1 . 


-wepe- 


B. 13. was 


(The) 


in 




(as well as) 


fault B. 7. ) 



c 



sons 



(the) 



;> 



Were is a violation of Rule 13; it should have the singular form, was. 
(Page 32.) 

As well as is a combination of words used as a conjunction. 

Rule 14. — A verb, with two or more subjects in the 
singular, connected by and, must be plural. 

When the connected subjects are different names of the same 
thing, or when they name several things taken as one whole, the 
verb must be singular. 

Examples. — Oatmeal and milk is excellent food. My esteemed friend 
and schoolmate is now in the country. 



SYNTAX VERBS. 239 

When the subjects are emphatically distinguished, the verb 
agrees with the first, and is understood with the second. 

Examples. — Capital, and labor also, is required. Time, as well as pa- 
tience, is needed. Diligent industry, and not mean savings, constitutes honor- 
able competence. 

When one of the subjects is affirmative and the other negative, 
the verb agrees with the affirmative. 

Examples.— Dissipation, and not ill luck, ruined his fortune; Books, and 
not pleasure, occupy his time. 

A verb in the imperative mode usually agrees with thou, you, or 
ye, expressed or understood. 

Examples. — Look [ye] to your hearths, my Lord! Smooth [thou] thy 
brow ; [Do thou] let brighter thoughts be with the virtuous dead. 

When several subjects follow the verb, each subject may be 
emphasized by making the verb agree with that which stands nearest. 

Examples. — Yours is the responsibility and the labor and the honor; 
Thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory. 

When two or more singular subjects are emphatically distin- 
guished, or are preceded by each, every or no, the verb should be 
singular. 

Examples.— All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy; The master as 
well as the servant, wot to blame; Each minute, hour and day is valuable; 
Every bird and beast retreats before the storm. 

THEMES FOR COMPOSITION. 

1 Ice Palaces. 2. An Intercepted Eetter. 

3. The Rainbow. 4. A World without Light. 

:. Daily Wonders. 0. What the Moon Saw. 

7. Buried Cities. 8. My Grandfather*! Clock. 

9. Tin- Pyramids. 10. How I Earned my Living 

11. Greal Discoveries. 12. The Sandwich Islands 

13. a Day in Venice. 14. Old and New Cities. 

15. The Great West. 16. Lieut Nordenskiold's Voyage. 

::. Unwritten Mosto, is. Egyptian Architecture. 



240 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Rule 17. In Subjunctive Clauses the plural form of 
the verb is generally used even with singular subjects* 

11 Though he drives me from his door, yet will I not desert 
him." 



B.I. 



will desert B.13. 



him B.6. 



) 



c 



( not ) 



Though yet 



j 



:> 



r 






( he drives B.17. drive me 




from 






door B.7. \ 



) 



Drives is a verb in the subjunctive mode therefore it should have the 
subjunctive or plural form, drive. 

This is a sentence; declarative; complex. I is the subject of the prin- 
cipal sentence; will desert is the predicate; him is the object. Will 
desert is modified by the subjunctive clause, Though he drive me from 
his door, of which he is the subject; drive is the predicate; me the 
object. 

EXERCISES. 

To be corrected: 

1. If it rains to-morrow, I shall not go to Albany. 2. If he 
was here, I should be glad. 3. Though he slays me, yet will I 
trust in him. 4. If thy brother offends thee, rebuke him; and if 
he repents, forgive him. 5. Unless he arrives, there is danger. 
6. I wish that she was you. 7. I shall depart to-morrow pro- 
vided he remains. 8. In case he returns, they will leave here in 
the morning. 9. Unless he grinds our corn we will have no dinner. 
10. The president recommended that the prisoner should be given 
his liberty. 

Punctuation, — The dash should be used where the>e is a sudden 
break or stop in a sentence, or a change in its meaning or construction. 



ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 



241 



"Withdraw thy foot from thy neighbor's house, lest he weary 
of thee and destroy thee." 



( [Thou] 



B.l. 



withdraw 11.13. 



foot B 



»D- 



from 



house 



( lest ) 



( neighbor's \ 



( thy ) 

:) 



G 



he 



B.l. 



weary B.l 7. 



(_and_) 



of 



thee B.7. 



( [he] 



destroy B.l 7. 



thee B.6. 



) 



This is a sentence; imperative; complex. Thou or you understood is 
the subject of the principal sentence; withdraw is the predicate; foot is 
the object. Withdraw is modified by the two subjunctive clauses, he 
weary of thee and [hej destroy thee. (Page 71.) 

Lest is a subordinate conjunction connecting the two subordinate clauses 
with the modified word, withdraw, in the principal sentence. 

Point out the faults and reconstruct the following sentences, making 
them clear: 

1. Your friend was overjoyed to see him, and he sent for one of 
his workmen, and told him to consider himself at his service. 
2. The clerk told his employer, whatever he did, he could not 
please him. 3. He told the driver that he would be the death of 
him if he did not take care what he was about, and mind what he 
said. 4. My friend, Johnson, used to relate that, when he bought 
the copy of his " Connection of the old and New Testament M to 
the bookseller, he told hhn it was b dry subject. 5. Winston 
answered the French minister that if he had sent in a complaint. 
he w«>nld have punished the sailors severely. 8. James's son, 

Charles I., before the breath was out of his body Was proclaimed 

king in his stead 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rule 2. A noun or pronoun used as the predicate 
of a sentence is in the nominative case. 

Explanation. — A noun or pronoun used as the predicate of a 
sentence means the same person or tiling as the subject. The 
pronoun, it, as subject, may represent a noun or pronoun of any 
person, number or gender, as predicate; as, It was he; It was I; 
It was you. 

Correct the following sentences using this as a model: 

" Whom did he say they were? " 



f 



f he B.l. did say j (they were j B.2. w hom j B.6. 

I 

Whom is a violation of Rule 2 ; it should have the 'nominative form 
who. (Page 13.) 

1. I do not know whom they are. 2. We did not know it was 
him. 3. That was me. 4. It could not have been her. 5. It was 
John and me that you saw. 6, It is not him that she is angry with. 
7. Had I been him, I should have done the same. 8. It was me 
that broke your slate. 9. Let him be whom he may. 10. Whom 
do they say that I am? 

THEMES FOR COMPOSITION. 

1. A Desirable Guest. 2. Our Navy. 

3. Growing Old Gracefully. 4. Discretion, 

5. The Magic of Kindness. 6. The Tariff. 

7. The Dollar of our Fathers 8. Self Control. 

9. Difficulty of being Truthful 10. Courtesy. 

11. Halloween and its Customs. 12. The Sunny Side. 

13 True and False Delicacy. 14. Peacemakers. 



ETYMOLOGY ADVERBS. 



243 



THE ADVERB. 

1. An Adverb is a word used to modify the mean- 
ing > — 

(1) Of a verb. " She sings sweetly. " 

(2) Of au adjective. " That is a very hard stone." 

(3) Of another adverb. i% He writes exceedingly well." 

(4) Of a phrase. " He sailed nearly round the world." 

Remark. — An adverb may be used to modify a clause ; as, His sons like* 
icise came to the city. (Page 40.) 

" Even as a miser counts his gold, 
Those hours the ancient time-piece told." 

2. Some idiomatic phrases are commonly used as 
adverbs, and are therefore called adverbial phrases. 

The following is a partial list of the adverbial phrases most fre- 
quently employed in English: 



at large 


by far 


in truth 


in like mann er 


here and there 


at once 


by turns 


of purpose 


a truth 


of mornings 


at best 


as yet 


in that 


from below 


up and down 


at all 


by chance 


inasmuch as 


one by one 


in and out 


at length 


at times 


by and by 


in case 


now and then 


at last 


at hand 


by no means 


from above 


ever and anon 


in general 


in short 


at present 


in vain 


out and out. 



3. Some adverbs and adverbial phrases are formed 
by combining a preposition with a noun or an adjective. 

A, standing for the old English an, on, in ; as a~year, a-day = 
yearly, daily; a-bed, a-foot, a-loft. 



A, with old possessive forms; as, a-nights, now-a-days 
English now -on- days. 



old 



244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

An, on, o, standing for an or on, and meaning of; as man- as 
war, two-o-clock, Jack- an- apes. 

Be; as, be-times, he-side. 

Of , replacing the old possessive case; as, Of -course, of -force, 
of -truth, of -old, of -late, of-a-day, of -a- truth. 

To; as, to-day, to-night, to-morrow. 

4. With respect to their meaning and use, adverbs, 
are divided into five classes : Adverbs of Time, Place, 
Cause, Manner and Degree. • 

Direction. — For classes of adverbs and comparison, see page thirty- 
seven. 

Some adverbs are the equivalents of independent sentences and 
some appear as remnants and representatives of such sentences : 
Yes, no, amen, well, why, nay. 

Examples. — " Yes; there is a remedy." " So, so; and this is 
the way." " Well, I hardly know what to say." tl Why, yon must 
be mistaken." 

5. Adverbs are short equivalents for phrases or pro- 
positions. 

Thus = in this manner. Now = at this time. 

In vain = in a vain manner. There = in that place. 

Occasionally = as occasion requires. Where = in what place . 

6. Many of the most common modifying words can 
be used in the same form either as adjectives or as 
adverbs. 

Examples. — No, well, better, best, very, more, most, hard, 
long, like, less, least, worse, worst, ill, yonder, fast, late, early. 

«'He is no fool;" adjective. u He is no better;" adverb. 

"Few men, like him, fight;" adj. "Few men fight like him;" adv. 



ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS. 245 

7. In poetry and in compound words, the adjective 
form is allowed to a greater extent than elsewhere. 

" The swallow sings sweet from her nest in the wall. — Dimon. 
" Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring." — Pope. 
"Though thou wertfirmlier fastened than a rock." — Milton. 
*' By the vendurous banks of a smooth-gliding stream." — Moore. 

Two negatives are not employed in modern English to express a 
negation. 

Examples. — " He dosn't know nothing about it." The expression 
should be, "He don't know anything about it;" or, "He knows nothing 
about it." 

This method of using two negatives in the same sentence is a 
remnant of old English usage. Until the middle of the seven- 
teenth century an accumulation of negatives was employed in 
strengthening negation: 

M Thou never didst them wrong, nor no man wrong." — Shakespeare. 

"Therefore saith the King Solomon, 
lie not idle never more.'* — Robert of Brunne. 

Remark.- An adverb sometimes becomes a noun; as, We have enough; 
I will do it for once; By far the best. 

8. To express manner or describe the act, the ad- 
verb should be used; to describe the object, the 

adjective. 

"Things look [lire] favorable this morning; " adj. 

" He look- skiUfuUp at the moon, through his telescope." 

" We arrived saje; " i. e., we were safe when we arrived. 

When the verb be or become can be joined to the verb, ou put in 
Its place, the modifying word la or should be an adjective. 

"The waves dashed high; " i. e., they were high, and dashed. 

" Soft blows the breeze; " i. e., is soft, and blown, 

"He spoke better;" a/lv . " He seemed better, felt belter; " adj. 

9. A Conjunctive Adverb is a conjunction which 

carries with it the force of an adverb. 



246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Examples. — "Go where (to the place at which) glory waits thee;" I 
shall see you when I return. (Page 47.; 

The clause introduced by a conjunctive adverb modifies some 
word in the principal sentence. (Page 48.) 

Remark. — The principal conjunctive adverbs are: as, after, before, 
how, since, therefore, till, until, when, where, wherefore, while and why. 

Direction. —For the parsing of the adverb see page one hundred and 

seven. 



THE PKEPOSITION. 

1. A Preposition is a word used to show the relation 
between its object and some other word. 

Remark. — The preposition shows the relation between its object and a 
word which is modified by the prepositional phrase. (Page 28.) 

Two prepositions are frequently combined and used as one. In 
such cases treat the two prepositions as one, calling the combina- 
tion a complex preposition. 

Examples. — They came from over the river; It came from under the 

bridge. (Page 47.) 

For is sometimes used as an introductory preposition. 

Examples.—" For him to deceive," " For us to do so," etc. 

When the relations between objects of thought are so obvious 
that they need no expression, the prepositions are usually omitted. 

Examples,— He went home yesterday; The river is a mile wide; That 
block of buildings is worth a million. (Page 40.) 

2. Two or more prepositions may have the same 
noun or pronoun for its object. 

Examples. — He walked up and down the hill. 

But, for, since, and some others, are frequently used as conjunc- 
tions. 



SYNTAX — PREPOSITIONS. 



247 



KxnmploN. — We will retire, since you have returned; I must go, for it 
is late. cPage 106.) 

Many words, prepositional iu their nature, such as after, about, 
up, before, beyond, beloio, are used as adverbs. 

Examples. — You may go before, but John must stay behind. The 
eagle Hew up, then soared about and afterwards descended. 

Prepositions are much used as parts of compound words; and 
when thus used they are generally adverbial. 

Examples. — Uphold, income, overshot, afterthought. 

Caution. — It is inelegant, if not ungrammatical, to place a small 
word, especially a proposition, at the end of a sentence. 

Examples. — Which house did you live in? W r hat are you looking for? 
The better construction is, In which house did you live? For what are 
you looking? 

Rule 7. — The object of a preposition is in the ob- 
jective case. 

Correct the following sentences using this as a model: 
M That is the officer who you gave my address to." 



( 


( man ) 


is j 


officer B.2. ) 




( That ) 










( 


you 


gave 


address R.6. 



to 



(J5L) 

who R.7. whom ) 



Who Lfl I violation of Rule 7; it should have the objective form, whom. 
"That i- th.> offioei to whom you gave my address;" is a sentence 

declarative; complex Oflleor, the predicate of the principal sentence, li 



248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

modified by the subordinate sentence or clause, to whom you gave my 
address. Gave is modified by the prepositional phrase, to whom. (Page 29.) 

1. Who is this iuteaded for? 2. How much did his parents 
send him to the city with? 3. Which school do you go to? 4. This 
was intended for Henry and I. 5. He rode several miles driving a 
herd of sheep on horseback. 6. Which of these books can I find 
that passage in? 7. What firm are you agent for? 8. He put bas- 
kets of peaches in his wagon without a cover. 

Remark.-*r/ie order of parsing the preposition, and the models are on 
page 111. 



REMARKS. 

3. Care should be taken to select such prepositions, 
and such only, as express the relation intended. 

With denotes an instrument ; by denotes a cause : 

Examples. — He was struck with a stone, and died by violence. 

Of denotes possession of a thing or quality; to denotes that 
the thing or quality is directed towards something else. 

Examples. — She is a friend o/mine ; She has been a friend to me. 

Among, amongst, are applicable to more than two objects; 
between, betwixt, are applicable to two objects only. 

Examples. — He divided his share among his six companions ; He 

divided the estate between his two brothers. (Page 110.) 

Beview page 110 and correct the following sentences: 

1. He went away of a fine morning with a basket La to his hand. 
2. William has gone south, accompanied with his brother. 3. He 
was struck by a stone, and died with violence. 4. I shall pay you 
some time during next week. 5. We divided our share among the 
two boys. 6. I put the cards in the box. 7. Henry and James 
are to school. 8. He divided his share between his six compan- 
ions. 9. We differ with you on that subject. 10. They ought to 
profit from the errors of others. 



ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS. 249 

2. Have you reviewed the work of page oue hundred ten? 2. 
He is dependent on his friends. 3. They came in the house. 4. I 
differ with you. 5. He has been at Cincinnati. 6. Never depart 
out of the straight path. 7. Where is the key to that door? 8. I 
shall study on page one hundred nine. 9. He put his pen in the 
ink. 10. The sultry morning was followed with a hail-storm. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 

1. A conjunction connects sentences, or the ele- 
ments of a sentence, between which it is placed. 

2. Conjunctions are divided into two general classes : 
Coordinate and Subordinate. 

3. Co-ordinate Conjunctions connect words of the 
same form — verbs in the same mood and tense, or 
nouns in the same case. 

Examples. — Oxygen and hydrogen are the elements of which water is 
composed; Henry came and Walter went; George has come but Arthur has 
gone. (Page 111.) 

4. Co-ordinate Conjunctions may be divided into 
four classes : 

(1) Copulative, denoting addition: And, also, further, more- 

<>rer. 

(2) Adversative, denoting opposition: But, still, yet, o?ihj, 

however, notwithstanding. 

(3) Alternative, denoting that which may be chosen or 

omitted: Else, otherwise, or, nor, either. 

(4) Illative, which implies a consequence: Therefore, ivhere- 

fore, hence, thence, beeauset consequently, accordingly. 



250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Subordinate Conjunctions are those which join 
elements of different ranks or names. 

Remark. — Subordinate Conjunctions connect modifying clauses with 
the words they modify. (Page ^5.) 

6. Subordinate conjunctions may divided into four 
classes : 

(1) Of manner or degree, denoting likeness and excess or 

deficiency : As, as if, how, although, than, so as. 

(2) Temporal, denoting time: Ere, after, before, until, 

whilst, when. 

(3) Local, denoting rest in, or motion to or from place: 

Where, there, whence, t'lence, whither, thither. 

(4) Causal, denoting effect, condition, reason, result, or 

purpose: So, that, if, unless, except, as, because, 
since, although, though, for, whereas, inasmuch as. 

Correlative Conjunctions are co-ordinate or subordinate 
conjunctions used in pairs, one referring or answering to the 
other. 

Examples. — She is as tall as he. Though deep, yet clear. He is both 
learned and wise. (Page 113.) 

EXERCISES. 

Parse the Conjunctions: 

1. I shall not go unless you go with me. 2. She works for no 
Other purpose than to pass away the time. 3. The answer is the 
same as that in the book. 4. Those people live in houses as we 
do. 5. We should be industrious and economical as our forefath- 
ers were. 6. This is the reason why I staid at home. 7. My sis- 
ter and I were at the concert last evening. 8. My brother said 
that he believed he would sell his horse. 9. William and Arthur are 
opening a new coal mine. 10. They make their crackers as we do. 



SYNTAX CONJUNCTIONS. 251 

7. Great care and good judgment should be used in 
selecting conjunctions for use in sentences. 

Remark, — Eikeand with are often used for as; that for irhy; but for 
than; without for wiless; as well as for and; how for that; together 
with for and. 

EXERCIS ES . 

To be corrected: 

1 . I shall not go without you go with me. 2. He works for 
no other purpose but to pass away the time. 3. The answer is the 
same with that in the book. 4. Those people live in houses like we 
do. 5. We should be industrious and economical, like our fore- 
fathers were. 6. That is the reason that I staid at home. 7. I, 
as xcell as my sister, w T ere at the concert last evening. 8. My 
brother said how he believed he would sell his farm. 9. Henry, 
together with George, are opening a new grocery. 10. They make 
their bread like we do. 



THE INTERJECTION. 

An Interjection is a word used to denote some 
sudden or strong emotion. 

Examples. — Alas! no hope for me remains. Adieu! adieu! my native 
land. (Page 114.) 

In our language there are interjections correspond- 
ing to nearly every emotion of the human heart. The 
principal interjections are those expressing: 

(1) Disappointment; as, Whew! 

(2) Contempt; as, Faugh! pshaw! fie! fudge! 
(5) Repression; as, Mist! mum! hush! 

(4) Imitation; as, Pop! ding-dong! bang! 

(5) Greeting or parting; as, Good bye! farewell! adieu* 

(6) Pain or suffering; as, Ah! alas! dear me! weU-a-day! 
(J) Jot or glad surprise; as, Oh! ah! Hurrah! Huzza! 



252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PUNCTUATION. 

1. Punctuation is the art of dividing written language 
by points, in order that the relations of words and clauses 
may be plainly seen, and their meaning be readily under- 
stood. 

Remark. —In reading, a pause is generally made where the point is 
used, but the points do not mark all the pauses. 

2. The principal characters used in punctuation are the 
following : 



Comma, , 

Semicolon, ; 

Colon, : 

Period, 

Interrogation Point, ? 



Exclamation Point, . ! 
Dash, ...... . — 

Curves, .... () 

Brackets, . . . 



Note. — The rules for punctuation and capitals will be found scattered 
all through this work near exercises which furnish abundant examples for 
their illustration. 

THE PERIOD. 

The Period denotes the greatest degree of separa- 
tion. 

1. A period must be placed after every declarative and 
imperative sentence. 

2. A period must be placed after every abbreviated 
word. 

Example*. — Dr. H. B. Brown. We arrived at Valparaiso, Ind., August 
10th, 1891. 



PUNCTUATION. 253 

THE COMMA. 

The word Comma means that lohich is cut of, and 
the mark so called denotes the least degree of separa- 
tion that requires a point. 

1. Phrases and single words used parenthetically, 
should be separated from the rest of the sentence by com- 
mas. 

Remark. — Phrases and words are parenthetical when they are not es- 
sential to the meaning and structure of the sentence; as, It is mind, after 
all. which rules the world. 

2. A complex subject, if long, should be separated from 
the predicate by a comma. 

3. A dependent clause should be separated by a comma, 
or by commas, from the clause upon which it depends. 

Remark. —A clause is dependent when it modifies a word in the prin- 
cipal sentence, as, If you desire to succeed in life, be industrious and hon- 
est. 

4. A clause used as subject, if it ends with a verb, should 
be separated from the predicate by a comma. 

Example. — That we shall go, has been decided. 

5. Antithetical words, phrases, and clauses should be 
separated by commas. 

Example. — Keen logic, and not a great demonstration, produces con- 
viction. 

6. Adverbs used independently, or modifying an entire 
proposition. Bhould be set off by commas. 

Example. — Well, since thlfl i- true, I shall depart never to return. In- 
r/rrti. you are mistaken. 

7. Words repeated for the sake <>f emphasis should he set 

off from the rest of the sentence by commas. 

Example. — M Verily, verily, I say unto you." 



254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. Nouns and pronouns in the nominative absolute case, 
should be separated from the rest of the sentence by com- 
mas. 

Examples. — Go, my child, and do so no more. Your booh, where is it? 

9. A direct quotation, separated by a principal clause, 
should be set off by commas. 

Example.- " That is right, my son," he said, "continue in the good 
work." 

10. Absolute phrases, adjectives, participles, and apposi- 
tives, should be separated from the context by commas. 

Examples. — Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance. The 
maxim, " Enough is as good as a feast," has silenced many a vain wish. 

Remark- Nouns in apposition unmodified, or modified by the only, are 
not usually separated by commas ; as, The Emperor Napoleon was a great 
general. 
• 

11. When a verb is omitted to avoid repetition, its place 
is usually supplied by a comma. 

Example. — War is the law of violence; peace, the law of love. 

12. When words are arranged in pairs, each couplet should 
be set off by commas. 

Example. — Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I am forever 
bound to the cause. 

13. Each term of a series of words in the same construc- 
tion, should be set off by commas. 

Examples. ~ He has horses, cattle, sheep, farms, houses, mills and 
whole forests of pine timber. 

14. Members of sentences containing correlative adverbs 
and conjunctions, should be separated by commas. 

Example. — The harder we study, the better we like to study. 



PUNCTUATION, 255 

15. The members of compound sentences, when short 
and connected by conjunctions, should be separated by 

commas. 

Kxample. — His simplicity inspired confidence, his eloquence aroused 
enthusiasm, and his gentleness invited friendship. 

16. A comma should be used, even when not required by 
the grammatical construction, whenever it serves to de- 
velop the sense or prevent ambiguity. 

EXERCISES. 

Supply such points as are necessary in the following sentences: 

1. Education if it cannot accomplish everything can neverthe- 
less accomplish much. 2. Never be discouraged however gloomy 
the prospect. 3. The blind and the lame and the deaf were there. 
4r.I see then in revelation a purpose corresponding with that for 
which human teaching was instituted. 5. In every line of Dante's 
11 Divine Comedy " we discern the asperity which is produced by 
pride struggling with misery. 6. We often commend as well as 
censure imprudently. 7. Apostles prophets and martyrs have 
proved the truth of the Christian faith. 8. The oranges lemons 
and figs which grow in the northern range of the Southern States 
are of an inferior quality. 9. Hail Patience blest source of peace 
blest cure for every pain. 

THE SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon denotes a degree of separation 
greater than that denoted by the comma. 

1. The semicolon should be placed between the members 
of a compound sentence, unless the connection is exceed- 
ingly cl 

Examph'. — " Lying lips are an abomination to the Lord; but they that 
deal truly are His delight." 



256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. The semicolon should be used before as, namely, to ivit, 
viz. , introducing an example or an illustration. 

3. The semicolon should be placed between the greater 
divisions of sentences, when minor subdivisions occur that 
are separated by commas. 

Example.— Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, not the 
web; and wit the ornament of the mind, not the furniture. 

4. When several long clauses occur in succession, all 
having common dependence on some other clause or word, 
they must be separated by semicolons. 

Example. — My imagination would conjure up all that I had heard or 
read of the watery world beneath me; of the finny tribes that roam in the 
fathomless valleys; of shapeless monsters that lurk among the very founda- 
tions of the earth; and those wild phantasms that swell the tales of fisher- 
men and sailors. — Irving. 

EXERCISES. 

Supply such points as are necessary in the following sentences: 

1. Wit is abrupt darting scornful and tosses its analogies in 
your face Humor is slow and shy insinuating its fun into your 
heart. 2. The gem has lost its sparkle scarce a vestige of its 
former brilliancy remains. 3. The poisoned valley of Java is 
twenty miles in extent and of considerable width it presents a most 
desolate appearance being entirely destitute of vegetal on. 4. 
A Scotch mist becomes a shower and a shower a flood and a 
flood a storm and a storm a tempest and a tempest thunder and 
lightning and thunder and lightning heaven-quake and earth- 
quake. 

THE COLON. 

The Colon indicates the next greatest degree of 
separation to that denoted by the period. 

1. The members of a compound sentence, whose parts are 
phrases or clauses set off by semicolons, should be separated 
by colons. 



PROSODY. 257 

Example.- We perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but 
did not see it moving; we observe that the grass has grown, though it was 
impossible to see it grow: so the advances we make in knowledge, consist- 
ing of minute and gradual steps, are perceivable only after intervals of time. 

2. A colon must be placed before a formal enumeration 
of particulars, and a direct quotation, when referred to by 
the words thus, following, as follows, etc. 

Example-Man consists of three parts: first, the body, with its sensual 
appetites; second, the mind, with its thirst for knowledge; third, the soul, 
with its undying principle. 



PROSODY. 

1. Prosody treats of the quantity of syllables, of accent, 
and of the laws of versification. 

2. Versification is the art of making verse. 

3. Verse i- the musical arrangement of words, according 
to some regular accent. 

4. Prose is discourse written in language or ordinarily 
used, having reference, mainly, to a clear and distinct state- 
ment of the writer's meaning. 

."». Poetry is discourse written in metrical language. Its 
aim i- to please, by addressing the imagination and the sen- 
sibilities. 

<>. Poetry is written either in Rhyme or in Blank Verse. 

7. Rhyme i< ;i similarity of sound, bet ween the last sylla- 
ble of different lines or half lines. 

Remark.- A coujrfct or distich, consists of two lines rhyming together. 
A triplet, of thr- 



258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. Blank Verse is verse without rhyme. 

9. Heroic Verse is verse that consists of iambic penta- 
meters. 

Remark. — This verse is so called because it is chiefly used iu epic 
poetry, or in poetry that relates the exploits of heroes. See Milton and 
Shakespeare. 

10. A Stanza is a group of lines forming a division of a 
r>oem. 

POETIC FEET. 

1. A Poetic Foot is a part of a line that consists gen- 
erally of two or three syllables, one of which is accented. 

2. Accent is a stress of voice on a certain syllable of a 
word or foot. 

The quantity of a syllable is its relative quantity of sound, or it 
is the relative time occupied in uttering the syllable. In regard 
to quantity, some syllables are long, some are short, and some are 
variable. 

The principle feet used in English verse, are the Iambus, the 
Trochee, the Pyrrhic, the Spondee, the Anapest, the Dactyl, and the 
Amphibrach. 

3. The Iambus; a foot of two syllables, accented on the 
second. 

Ex.-" A. mind' | not to' | be changed' | by place' | or time'." 

4. The Trochee; a foot of two syllables, accented on the 

first. 

Ex. — " Ru'in | seize' thee, j ruth'less king'." 

5. The Spondee; a foot of two long or accented syl- 
lables. 

Ex. — " Rocks', | caves', | lakes', | fens', j bogs', j dens', | and shades' j 
of death'." 



PROSODY. 259 

6. The Pyrrhic; a foot of two short or unaccented syl- 
lables. 

The pyrrhic is sometimes used in iambic verse, to avoid ac- 
centing- an unimportant word. 

Ex. — " What could' | be less' | than to | afford' | him praise'?" 

Instead of resting on a short syllable, the accent is sometimes 
allowed to pass to the tirst syllable of the next foot, making that 
foot a spondee. 

Ex.- Of the | low, sun' | set clouds', | and the | blue' sky'." 

7. The Anapest; a foot of three syllables, accented on 
the last. 

Ex. — " All at once' | and all o'er' | with a might' | y uproar'." 

8. The Dactyl consists of one accented and two unac- 
cented syllables. 

Ex. — Heed' not the | corpse', though a | king's', in your | path'." 

9. The Amphibrach consists of one unaccented, one 
accented, and one unaccented syllable. 

Ex- — " A pret' ti- | er din' ner | I nev' er | set eyes' on." 

10. The Caesura, a long or accented syllable used as one 
foot. 

Ex. — Gold', | gold', | gold', | gold'. | . 

Hca'vy to | get' and | light' to | hold'. — Hood. 

A foot of three unaccented syllables is called a Tribrach. It is 
rarely found in English poetry. 

POETIC LINES AND PAUSES. 

1. Feet arc formed into lines of various length \ and the 

lines are then called Iambic^ Trochaic^ Anapestic, or Dactylic, 
according to the kind of foot which prevails in them. 



260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Lines are also named according to the number of feet 
composing them. 

(1) Monometer, a line of one foot. 

(2) Dimeter, a line of two feet. 

(3) Trimeter, a line of three feet. 

(4) Tetrameter, a Hue of four feet. 

(5) Pentameter, a line of five feet. 

(6) Hexameter, a line of six feet. 

(7) Heptameter, a line of seven feet. 

(8) Odometer, a line of eight feet. 

Verse, therefore, may be Iambic Monometer, Iambic Dimeter, etc. ; 
Trochaic Monometer, Trochaic Dimeter, etc. ; Anapestic Monometer, 
Anapestic Dimeter, etc.; Dactylic Monometer, Dactylic Dimeter, etc. 

A verse or foot in which a syllable is wanting at the end, is 
called catalectic: a full verse or foot is called acatalectic. 

POETIC PAUSES. 

1. To improve the rhythm or verse, there are two pauses ; 
the final and the ccesural. 

2. The Final Pause is a slight pause made at the end of 
each line, even when the grammatical sense does not re- 
quire it. 

Remark. — This pause should always be observed in reading 
poetry, even when there is no punctuation point at the end of the 
line. 

3. The Caesural Pause is a slight pause made within the 
line, most frequently about the middle of it ; and it belongs 
chiefly to long lines. 

The caesural pause is a natural suspension of the voice in 
reading. The shorter kinds of verse are without it. Its 
natural place is near the middle of the line ; but the sense 
often requires that it be placed elsewhere. 



TROSODY. 26 1 

Examplt's.-" Wanna In the sun, || refreshes in the breeze, 

Glows in the stars, || and blossoms in the trees." — Pope. 

" And now, || my tongue the secret tells." 

M Xo sooner had the Almighty ceased, |j than all 
The multitude of angels, || with a shout 
Loud, || as from numbers without number, || sweet 
As from blest voices || uttering joy." — Milton. 

This versification is admirable. The cresural pause after 
11 Umd" and that before " sweet," and the final pause after "sweet" 
make us halt in reading, to enjoy the exquisite luxury of the sense. 

4. Long lines can sometimes be divided at the c;esural 
pause into two lines each. 

IAMBIC MEASURES. 



2. Iambic Dimeter, 

" Their love' | and awe' 
Supply" | the law'." 



1. Iambic Monometer. 

" How bright', 
The light'!" 

3. Iambic Trimeter. 

"IJlue light' | nings singe' | the waves', 
And thun | der rends | the rock." 

4. Iambic Tetrameter. 

"The joys' | above' | are un' | derstood' 
And rel' | ish'd on'- | ]y by' | the good'." 

.">. Iambic Pentameter. 

"For praise' | too dear'- | ly lov'd' | or warm'- | ly sought', 
Enfee' | -bles all' | inter'- | nal strength' | of thought'." 

M With sol- | emn ad- | ora- | tion down | they cast 
Their crowns | inwove | with am- | arant | and gold." 

This is often called Heroic Measure because epic or heroic 
poetry La written in it. 

• '.. Iambic Hexameter. 

'Thy realm' | forev'- | er lasts', | thy own' | Messi' | ah reigns'." 

This Is seldom used except to complete a stanza in an ode, or 

occasionally to close a period in heroic rhyme. This verse [g 
called Alexandrine. 



262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. Iambic Heptameter. 

" The Lord' | descend'- | ed from' | above', | and bow'd' | the heav'- | 
ens high'.*' 

Modern poets have divided this kind of verse, into alter- 
nate lines of four and of three feet ; thus, — 

" O blind' | to each' | indul'- | gent aim' 
Of power' J supreme' | -ly wise', 
Who fan'- | cy hap'- | piness' | in aught' 
The hand' J of heaven' j denies' I" 

8. Long Meter is iambic tetrameter, arranged in stanzas of four 
lines, rhyming in couplets or alternately. 

Ex. —Praise God' | from whom' | all bless'- | ings now' : 
Praise him' | all creat'- | ures here' | below'; 
Praise him' | above', | ye heaven'- | ly host'; 
Praise Fath'- | er, Son,' | and Ho'- | ly Ghost.' 

9. Common Meter is a stanza of four iambic lines, the first and 
third being tetrameter, the second and fourth, trimeter, 

Ex. — Come let' | us join' | our cheer'- | ful songs', 
With an'- | gels round' | the throne'; 
Ten thou'- | sand thou'- | sand are' | their tongues', 
But all' | their joys' | are one'. 

10. Short Meter is a stanza of four iambic lines, the first, sec- 
ond, and fourth being trimeter, the third, tetrameter. 

Ex. — There sin' | &Jtd sor'- | row cease', 
And ev'- | ery con' | flict's o'er' ; 
There we' | shall dwell' | in end'- | less peace' 
Nor thirst' | nor nun'- | ger more'. 

11. The Elegiac Stanza consists of four iambic lines 
rhyming alternately. 

12. A Sonnet is a poem complete in fourteen iambic 

lines. 

TROCHAIC MEASURES. 



1. Trochaic Monometer. 

Chang'ing, 
Rang'ing. 



2. Trochaic Dimeter. 

"Fan'cy | vie'wing, 
Joys' en- | eu'ing." 



PROSODY. 263 

3. Trochaic Trimeter. 

M In' the | da'y's of | old', 
Sto'rles | pla'inly | told'." 

•i. Trochaic Tetrameter. 

"Round' a | ho'ly | calm' dif - | fus'ing, 
Love' of | peace' and | lone'ly | mus'lng." 

5. Trochaic Pentameter. 

" Virtue's | bri'ghtning | ray' shall | beam' for | ev'er." 

y'u Trochaic Hexameter. 

"On' a | monu'taln | stretched' be- | neath' a j hoa'ry | willow, 
Lay' a | shep'herd | swain', and | viewed' the | rolling | billow." 

7. Trochaic Heptameter. 

" In' the | spring' a | fee'ble | crim'son | comes' up- | on' | the | rob' 
ins | breas't; 
In' the | spring' the j want'on | lap'wing | gets' him- | self'an- J oth' 
er | nest'. " 



ANAPESTIC MEASURES. 

In Anapestic verse the stress is laid on every third syl- 
lable. The first foot of ananapestic line, may be an iambus. 

1. Anapestic Monometer. 

11 On the land', 
Let me stand'." 

2. Anapestic Dimeter. 

" In my rage', J shall be seen' 
The revenge' | of a queen'." 

3. Anapestic Trimeter. 

" I am mon'- | arch of all' | I survey' ; 
My right' I there is none' | to dispute'." 

\. Anapestic Tetrameter. 

At the close' j of the day', | when the ham'- | let is still', 
And mor'- | 'tall the sweets' | of forget' | fulness prove'."' 



264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



DACTYLIC MEASURES. 



1. Dactylic Monometer. 

" Fearfully. 
Tear'fully." 



2. Dactylic Dimeter, 

" Free' from sa | ti'ety, 
Care', and anx | i'ety, 
Charms' in va | riety, 
Fall' to his | share'." 

3. Dactylic Trimeter. 

" Wear'ing a- | way' in his | usefulness, 
Love'liness, | beau'ty, and | truth'fulness. 

4. Dactylic Tetrameter. 

" Boy' will an- | tic'ipate, | lav'ish, and | dis'sipate 
All' that your | bu'sy pate | hoard'ed with | care, 
And', in their | fool'ishn'ess, | pas'sion, and | mul'ishness, 
Charge' you with | churl'ishness, | spurn'ing your j pray'r." 

5. Dactylic Hexameter. 

< c Now' thou dost | wel'come me, | wel'come me | from' the dark | sea, 
Land' of the | beau'tiful, | beau'tiful | land' of the free." 

A dactylic verse rarely ends with a dactyl. It sometimes 
ends with a trochee, sometimes with a long syllable. 

AMPHIBRACH MEASURES. 

1. Amphibrach Trimeter. 

" A breath' of | submission | we breathe' not; 
The sword' we | have drawn' we | will sheathe' not." 

2. Amphibrach Tetrameter. 

The flesh' was | a picture | for paint'ers | to study, 
The fat' was | so whit'e and | the lean' was so rud'dy. 

3. Different kinds of feet are often found in the same line. 

4. Different measures are frequently used in the .same poem. 

POETIC LICENSES. 

A Poetic License is an allowed deviation from the cor- 
rectness of ordinary prose, or from the regular laws of 
versification, in order that the poet may be enabled to reach 
the requirements of verse. 



APPENDIX. 

ADDRESSED TO THE TEACHER. 

The work as arranged in this book is designed for use in the 
fourth and rifth grades of public schools and in corresponding de- 
partments of other institutions of learning. 

Since it is through analysis that we learn to know with exact- 
ness the use of words in a sentence and the relations which they 
bear to each other, it follows that it is through the same source 
that we find the most systematic as well as the shortest, process 
in reaching the rules of grammar and the principles which govern 
our language. Analysis, therefore, forms a large part of our work. 
The method pursued in doing the work on the 7th and succeeding 
pages, should be substantially as follows: — 

1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

The teacher should always commence the work under a new 
topic with the analysis of the sentence given as a model, therefore, 
" Birds sing" should be taken as the first sentence here. The 
teacher should write it on the blackboard and then commence by 
asking the questions: — 

About what is something said in this sentence? About what is 
the affirmation made? 

M Birds " will be the answei given by the pupil called upon.* 
Write it on the blackboard and draw the line for the diagram. 
Then continue: — 

Yes, "birds; M therefore, " birds M is the subject of the sentence. 



* Note. — The pupils should not be permitted to answer in concert. 
Those prepared to answer may indicate their willingness to do so by raising 
their right hands. The teacher may then call upon Individuals by name. 
See next page. 

137 



138 APPENDIX. 

What is said of "birds?" What word expresses the action 
affirmed of " birds? " 

11 Sing " will be the answer given. The diagram completed, the 
teacher should analyze the sentence using the exact words given in 
the analysis on page 7. 

The pupils should be then called upon, one by one, to analyze the 
sentence orally, in exact imitation of the teacher. It is best at 
first to call for volunteers, and it will be found that nearly every 
pupil in the class will become a volunteer before the close of the 
recitation. The timid ones, however, should not be neglected. Al- 
through the work the teacher should stimulate the backward pupils 
by asking them to recite oftener than those who are more bold and 
enterprising. Children delight to do that which they can do well 
Thoroughness and rapidity are so desirable that they should be 
secured at every point in the work. Every sentence should be 
analyzed by from six to ten pupils and it should not be considered 
finished until the pupils analyze it with the fluency of ordinary con- 
versation. One or two recitations will be sufficient to complete 
the analysis of the sentences given under the first topic. 



2. OBJECTS WITH TRANSITIVE VERBS. 

The work under this and the following topics should be com- 
menced by presenting to the class for analysis a few sentences 
written on the blackboard thus : — 

1. Columbus discovered America. 

2. Merchants sell goods. 

3. George studied history. 

4. Birds build nests. 

Since to diagram a sentence is to analyze it, the preparation of a 
lesson will consist in diagraming on slates the sentences assigned. 
During the recitation the same sentences should be diagramed by 
the teacher on the blackboard so as to give the pupils an opportun- 
ity of detecting and correcting their mistakes. 

" Columbus discovered America " being the sentence given as a 
model, it should, at the first recitation, be disposed of by teacher 
and pupils together. The teacher may ask questions like the fol- 
lowing to find the 



APPENDIX. 139 

Subject: — 
About what (whom) is something said in this sentence? 
About what (whom) is the affirmation made? 
What (who) is the actor? 
What is the subject? 
" Columbus" will be the answer. It should be written on the 
blackboard and the lines drawn for the diagram. The following 
questions may be asked to find the 
Predicate : — 

What is said of Columbus? 

What word expresses the action affirmed of Columbus? 
What did Columbus do? 
What is the predicate? 
" Discovered " will be the answer given by the pupil named. 
The following question may be asked to find the 
Object: — 
Can you discover without discovering something? 
Could Columbus discover without discovering something? 
What did Columbus discover? 
What is the object of " discover? " 
11 America " will be the answer. As soon as the diagram is com- 
pleted the teacher should analyze the sentence, using the words 
given in the analysis on page 8. A number of the pupils, not less 
than eight or ten, should then be asked to analyze it in exact imi- 
tation of the teacher. Correctness and rapidity should be secured 
\n the oral analysis of every sentence before it is passed. 

Rem. — The strict attention of every member of the class can be secured by 
requesting the pupils to analyze the sentence mentally with the pupil who is 
reciting, ami by allowing them to criticise the oral analysis at the close of 
each Individual recitation. (See note, page 120) The teacher should see 
that this request is strictly complied with. No careless inattention should be 
tolerated. 

A vital feature in this method is that everything is learned by 
experience rather than by definition. While doing the work re- 
quired by this plan, the pupils are continually making discoveries 
which develop into that definite knowledge which grammarians 



140 APPENDIX. 

usually try to present in print. Diagrams and outlines like those 
on pages eight and nine will be found very useful in the work. 

The outline on page eight should be kept on the blackboard until 
the work under the eighth topic is completed. The diagrams and 

SUGGESTIONS. 

Page 8.— Train the pupils into rapidity and correctness in the analysis of 
sentences. The fewer explanations made by the instructor the 
better. 

Page 10. —Each sentence should be analyzed by several pupils in rapid suc- 
cession. The instructor should guide the pupils in the work and 
use as few words as possible. The knowledge we are seeking is 
acquired almost wholly by experience. 

Page 12.— Write on the blackboard the form for correcting given here, and 
train the pupils in the use of it. Every form for correcting pre- 
sented in this work should be adhered to strictly. 

Page 18.— Study the structure of this and all other letters carefully, especi- 
ally its form and punctuation. 

Page 19.— Continually ask questions reviewing the work from the beginning. 
Give the class to understand clearly when an answer is correct. 
Leave nothing in doubt. 

Page 22.— Hereafter it will not be necessary to have all the sentences di- 
agramed in full on the blackboard. Draw the lines showing the 
location of each word, and write a few of the most important^ 
The pupils, however, should always bring to the recitation all the 
work done on slates or paper. 

Page 48.— If the class is an advanced one, taking a rapid course, time being 
limited, much of the work presented here may be omitted. The 
judgment of the instructor must rule in this matter. 

Page 47.— The Order for Parsing will make a better form for slate work 
than is given in the Models. It will be sufficient to parse the 
uoun, pronoun and verb if your course is a rapid one. 



KEY TO 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
Pfcge 10. 

6 Brilliant rays of solar light pierce the heavy, 
broken clouds. 



R - c - ) 



Ravs 



R. 1. 



brilliant 



pierce 



clouds 



No. 
6 



Of 



. the heavy broken 
\ / \ * ) V 



light R. 7. 



[ Solar J 



* Rays' is the subject, 'pierce' is the predicate, 'clouds' is the object. 'Rays' is modi- 
fied by 'brilliant' an adjective and by the phrase, 'of light.' 'Clouds' is modified by 'the,' 
'heavy' and 'broken' three adjectives. This sentence is out of grade on page io. 



Page 23 in Graded Method in English Grammar: 

5. Some think it was her and some think it was 
me that won the prize. This is a compound sentence 
and each of the single sentences of which it is com- 
posed is complex. The first transitive verb think, 
has a simple sentence for its object; the second tran- 
sitive verb think, has a complex sentence for its 
object. 







/ 








* 


( Some 


think 


\ 
/ 


( 


it 


was T 


she ) 


1 










y 


( and ) 










I 




1 








S 


f ^ome 


think 




( 


it 


was -p I 


-rae- ) 


No. 5 








( 


J 




\( 


thai 


won 


prize J 








j 



Her in th'- first sentence is a violation of Rule two; it should have the nominative 
form, she. Me, in the Second sentence is a violation of Rule two; it should have the 
nominative form, I. 



270 



KEY TO ANALYSIS 



6. It was not him but me that met you. We 
always supply the missing words in the analysis. 
This is a compound sentence composed of a simple 
sentence and a complex sentence. 



( - 


was 


T 


-him- he ) 


I 


I * ot J 






No - 6 ( but ) 




( » 


was 


T 


I E.2. ) 



that 



met 



you 



Him is a violation of Rule two; it should have the nominative form, he. Me is a 
violatio 3 of Rule two; it should have the nominative form, I. 



7. It could not have been her that wrote the letter. 



d 



could have been 



she 



R. 2. 



No. 7 



I * Qt J 



that 



wrote 



letter 



Her is a violation of Rule two; it should have the nominative form, she. 'She' is 
modified by the relative clause, 'that wrote letter.' 



8. If I had been him I would have done the same 
thing. "Would have done" is modified by the clause, 
"If I had been him." 



D 



would have done 



thing 



R. 6 



I the J I 



No. 8 



CD 



same 



had been 



he 



R 



xi 



Him is a violation of Rule two; it should have the nominative form, he. See the 
examination on page thirty-one. 



KEY TO ANALYSIS 271 

9. Whom do they say that I am? The transitive 
verb "do say" has for its object, the clause or sen- 
tence, "I am whom." The introductory conjunction, 
that, may be omitted in the analysis. 



{ They do say [ I am y who R. 2.) 



No. 9 ^v 

Whom is a violation of Rule two; it should have the nominative form, Who. 



Page 29. 

1. "Except him and me," "except her," "like him," 
"aboard the ship," "according to law," "among the 
weeds" and "along the border" are prepositional 
phrases. Examination on page 31. 



Page 30. 

3. We were all present except him. We and all 
indicate the same persons. All is an appositive under 
Rule four. "Except him" is a prepositional phrase' 
He is a violation of Rule seven; it should have the 
objective form, him. 

5. There is no one here except him and I. "There" 
is an expletive or word of euphony and may be omit- 
ted in the analysis. See page 47. "Except him and 
I" is a prepositional phrase. I is a violation of Rule 
7: it should have the objective form, me. 



272 KEY TO ANALYSIS 

3. Between you and I he is not noted for honesty. 
'Between you and I' may be treated as an independ- 
ent prepositional phrase or as a phrase modifying 
the verb, 'is noted.' is a violation of Rule seven; 
it should have the objective form, me. 

4. He maketh them to stagger like a drunken 
man. 'Them' is the subject of the infinitive, 'to 
stagger, ' under Rule 16, page 42. 

9. No one was there except he and his brother. 
'Except he and his brother,' is a prepositional 
phrase modifying 'one' or 'was.' He is a violation of 
Rule seven; it should have the objective form, him. 

Page 41. 

2. It is my desire that he go at once. 'That he go 
at once' may be treated as the real subject of the sen- 
tence or as an Appositive. Page 26. Goes is a vio- 
lation of Rule 17; it should have the subjunctive 
or plural form, go. 

5. The general command that the traitor dies for 
the crime. The subjunctive clause, "That the traitor 
dies for the crime" is the object of the transitive 
verb, commanded. "Dies 9 is a violation of Rule 17; it 
should have the subjunctive or plural form, die. 

This ''Key" is for free distribution. 

METROPOLITAN PUBLISHING CO. 

Odeon Building, St. Louis, Mo., 



A BRIEF 
INTRODUCTORY COURSE 



IN OUR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



USING 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



AS THE MEDIUM 



BY 

M. D. MUGAN 



Metropolitan - Publishing Co. 

ST. LOUIS. MO. 



This work is designed as an 
easy introduction to the practical 
part of the subject regardless of 
the grammar in use in the school- 
It furnishes the material, leads 
the pupil to investigate and 
guides him in the work. 



Copyright by 

M. D. MUGAN 

1907o 



STEPPING STONES IN 
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 



If you memorize every sentence from the begin- 
ning to the end of an ordinary arithmetic and fail 
to solve the problems, you will then not be able to 
calculate the value of IOV2 ounces of silver at 48^2 
cents an ounce. 

If you memorize every sentence from the begin- 
ning to the end of an ordinary grammar and fail to 
reason out the relations which the words bear to each 
other in the sentence, you will then not be able to 
apply the rules of grammar to the words individu- 
ally, and, therefore, you will not be able to detect 
and correct the errors in such sentences as the fol- 
lowing and give the reason for correcting: 

1. Who did he get it from? 21 

2. This is the strongest of the two. 29. 

3. Who can he have given it to? 19. 

\. Neil her of the boys read very well. 28. 

5. It must have been him that devised the plan. 24. 

6. The singular form of verbs end in what letter? 20 

7. Analysis of these sentences on the pages indicated by the num- 
bers at the ends of the lines. 

In this work almost everything is referred to 
reason. While doing the work the student discovers 
for himself that vast number of facts which is gen- 
erally presented, on the pages of the ordinary gram- 
mar, to be memorized. This reasoning method 
makes that abstruse subject easy, interesting and 
practical. 

We acquire aknowledge of words from every branch 
of school work as well as from the dictionary and 



4 STEPPING STONES IN 

general conversation. A knowledge of the relations 
which w T ords bear to each other in sentences and 
ability to perceive them with the rapidity of thought 
can be acquired only by experience in the analysis. 

The interdependence of words in sentences demands 
the applications of laws of language, known as rules 
of grammar, and the use of particular forms of words. 
A knowledge of the forms of words and the laws of 
language, combined with ability to perceive the re- 
lations, enables us to detect errors and gives us abil- 
ity to select, and use the correct form of word in each 
and every construction. 

The following are examples of analysis and the ap- 
plications of rules which will serve to illustrate the 
work and the method under consideration. 

" Every one of the passengers -teH- the same story" 
is a sentence, simple. 'One' is the subject; 'toll' is 
the predicate; 'story' is the object. 'One' is 
modified by 'every' an adjective and by the phrase 
'of passengers.' 'Story' is modified by 'the' and 
'same' two adjectives. 



one 



\kfr tells | story 




passengers 




The analysis proves to us that 'one' is the sub- 
ject of the verb, ±tetf The rule says : 

A verb must agree with its sueject in number. 

The verb, 'tell' having the singular subject 
c one,' should have the singular form, 'tells. 9 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 5 

"Who do you think I met in Paris " is a sentence, 
complex. 'You' is the subject of the principal sen- 
tence; 'do think' is the predicate; the clause, ; i 
met who in Paris' is the object. Of this clause or 
sentence 'I' is the subject; 'met' is the predicate 
and 'who' is the object. 

The analysis proves to us that 'who' is the ob- 
ject of the transitive verb, 'met.' The rule which we 
must apply says: 

The object of a transitive verb is in the objective 
case and should have the objective form. 



( Ton 



do think 



( I 


met 


whom ) 




in 






Paris ) jf 









Whom is the objective form and the sentence should 
be : " Whom do you think I met in Paris 9 " 

Many of the most prevalent errors in the language 
of every-day life cannot be referred to rules of gram- 
mar. They are violations of the laws of good taste, 
common sense and logic. Analysis, which shows so 
clearly the use of every word in the sentence, fur- 
nishes the most powerful means of eradicating all 
such errors and, at the same time, gives us ability 
to use clear, strong, precise periods instead of the 
obscure, weak, equivocal expressions that too often 
mar the beauties of composition and conversation. 

Having, in the foregoing pages, explored the field, 
to some extent, in which our work in the study of our 
language and literature must be done, we will now 
proceed to the work. 



STEPPING STONES IN 

In grading the sentences from the simplest to the 
most complicated, we have found thirty-six possible 
combinations of words forming sentences, different 
arrangements of which, we present in eighty-three 
sentences diagrammed and analyzed in full, so as to 
make the work easy for all. 

There are only about fourteen rules that are ever 
violated in general conversation, so our task is not a 
long one, and it is, by our method, intensely inter- 
esting. We commence with short, simple sentences 
but they grow, day by day, until they become very 
complex and complicated. 

We will commence the work with the analysis of 
sentences which will enable you — 

1. To detect the relations which words bear to 
each other in sentences. 

2. To apply the law or rule demanded by the re- 
lation to each and every word. 

3. To detect and correct the mistakes which we 
hear so frequently. 

4. To use correct and richly polished language 
with every element well selected and properly ad- 
justed in the sentence. 

You will find this analysis a delightful instrument for 
intellectual developement as well as a most powerful 
key with which to unlock the meaning of sentences. 
A few months by this method does the work of years 
by the old method. Grammar is no longer that un- 
satisfactory, uninteresting, endless labor that it was. 

This little volume is designed as a supplementary reader to be used as a 
companion for the third or fourth reader of the authorized edition. EJvery 
page should be at first treated purely as a reading lesson. 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 

SUBJECT, PREDICATE, OBJECT. 

The ocean eagle soared 

From his nest by the white wave's foam: 
And the rocking pines of the forest roared, 

This was their welcome home! 

1. The ocean eagle soared. 

2. The rocking pines roared. 

3. Those white clonds float. 

4. The ancients built earthen houses. 

5. Arthur found a large rubber ball. 



( Wind blows J 

[a j [ warm ] 

"A warm wind blows" is a sentence. 'Wind' is 
the subject; 'blows' is the predicate. 'Wind' is modi- 
fied by 'a' and 'warm' two adjectives. 

The subject of a sentence is the actor, the person 
or thing that does something. It is a name, a noun. 

The predicate of a sentence is an action word, a 
verb. 

An adjective is a word that points out or describes 
a noun. 



Orioles build 



nests 



[ the J [longj [hanging J 

"The orioles build long, hanging nests" is a sen- 
tence. 'Orioles' is the subject; 'build' is the predi- 
cate; 'nests' is the object. 'Orioles' is modified by 
; the' an adjective; 'nests' is modified by 'long' and 
'hanging' two adjectives. 

Diagram the sentences on this and the following pages neatly on slates or 
paper. During the recitation analyze them several times orally. Kvery 
pupil should be trained to analyze as rapidly as he can read. 



8 STEPPING STONES IN 

SUBJECT AND OBJECT MODIFIED. 

The curfew tolls the knell of parting* day: 
The lowing herds wind slowly o'er the lea; 

The plowman homeward plods his weary way 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 

1. The curfew tolls the knell. 

2. That old hawk caught a pigeon. 

3. A little yellow bird built the nest. 

4. That cunning fox sees a fine large duck, 

5. Some large black squirrels climbed that tree. 

"The plowman homeward plods his weary way" is 
a sentence, 'Plowman' is the subject; 'plods' is the 
predicate; 'way 5 is the object. Plowman is modified 
by 'the' an adjective; 'way' is modified by 'his' a 
possessive and by 'weary' an adjective. 



Plowman plods 



way 



| the j [ his [ [ weary | 

What is an adjective ? Name the adjectives in 
these sentences that point out nouns. Name the ad- 
jectives that describe nouns. Find all the adjectives 
in the curfew stanza. 

Plowman | plods 1 wa y 

Write six sentences each having its subject and its 
object modified by one descriptive adjective.. 

Diagram the sentences on this page and analyze 
them orally several times. 

The instructor should be generous in helping the class, especially while 
the work is new. Too much assistance can not be given during the first few 
weeks. 




LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 

CASE FORMS OF PRONOUNS. 

Singular Forms. 



I he 


she 


it 


my his 


her 


its 


rne him 


her 


it 


Plural Forms. 






we you 


they 


who 


our your 


their 


whose 


us you 


them 


whom 



Nominative forms 
r<>--essive forms 
Objective forms 



Nominative forms 
Possessive forms 
Objective forms 

The plural pronouns you, your, are now used both 
in the singular and the plural. Who, whose, whom 
are also used in the singular as well as in the plural. 

When a pronoun represents the name of one person 
or thing it is singular. When it stands for a plural 
noun it is plural. 

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. 
The case forms of nearly all the pronouns are on this 
page. 

The subject of every sentence is either a noun or a 
pronoun. The object of every verb, the object in 
every sentence is either a noun or pronoun. 

The case forms of the pronouns, as presented on 
this page, should be written on the blackboard in 
tabular form and kept there for convenient reference. 

The declension or CAM fornix of pronoun-- should DC learned thoroughly by 
r»ote before passing this pajje. Nom, she, l'oss. her, Obj. her: Nom. they 
Poss. their, Obj. them. I. mv, me; we. our, us. Who, whose, whom. 



10 STEPING STONES IN 

NOUNS— PRONOUNS- ADJECTIVES. 

When I remember all 

I've seen around me fall, 
I feel like one who treads alone 
Some banquet hall deserted, 

Whose lights are fled, 

Whose garlands dead, 
And all but him departed. 

The subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun. 
The object is a noun or pronoun. What is the 
predicate ? 

1. One, small, dark cloud hides the new moon. 

2. Brave men protected the ancient city. 

3. We remember all the genteel people. 

4. Who treads the deserted banquet halls ? 

5. Whose banner does the captain wave ? 

"A blooming rose decorates his antique portico" is 
a sentence. 'Rose' is the subject; 'decorates' is the 
predicate; 'portico' is the object. 'Rose' is modified 
by 'a' and 'blooming' two adjectives. 'Portico' is 
modified by 'his' a possessive and by 'antique' an 
adjective. 



( Eose decorates p ortico I 

[ a J [ blooming J I his J I antique 1 

Where do we find capital letters used ? What 
points do we find at the ends of sentences ? What is a 
pronoun ? A verb ? An adjective ? 



I Subject Predicate Object I 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 11 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

"Sweet bird, thy bower is ever green, 

Thy sky is ever clear; 
Thou hast no sorrow in thy song", 

No winter in thy year. 

The parts of speech are nouns, pronouns, verbs, 
adjectives, conjunctions, prepositions, etc. Which of 
these are we now using ? 

1. One sweet bird has a green bower. 

2. Another good bird may have a clear sky. 

3. A great pine tree shades the little cot. 

4. Whose banner do the children carry •? 

5. Who destroyed that beautiful apple tree ? 

Ensign has been blowing trumpet 

? k 

"Whose trumpet has the little ensign been blow- 
ing" is a sentence. 'Ensign' is the subject; 'has 
been blowing' is the predicate; 'trumpet' is the ob- 
ject. 'Ensign' is modified by 'the' and 'little' two 
adjectives. 'Trumpet'is modified by 'whose,' a poss- 
essive. 

Write six sentences each having a subject, predi- 
cate and object. Let the subject and object in each 
be modified by adjectives. 

What is an adjective ? A verb ? A noun ? A 
pronoun ? A conjunction ? How many parts of 
speech are we now using? Write a list of the ad- 
jectives in the five sentences above. 




12 STEPPING STONES IN 

HELPING VERBS— AUXILIARIES. 

Can storied urn or animated bust 
Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? 

Can Honor 7 s voice provoke the silent dust, 
Or Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of Death ? 

The helping verbs are do, be, have, shall, will, 
may, can, must, might, could, would, should, in theii 
different forms. 

1. Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust ? 

2. Who should have caught them ? 

3. Whom will you have seen 1 

4. Whose book must they have found ? 

5. Whose banner should he have waved ? 



Urn can call breath 



storied the fleeting 



"Can storied urn call the fleeting breath" is a 
sentence. 'Urn' is the subject; 'can call' is the predi- 
cate; 'breath' is the object. 'Urn' is modified by 
'storied,' an adjective; 'breath' is modified by 'the' 
and 'fleeting,' two adjectives. 

In this sentence 'can' is the helping verb and 
'call' is the principal verb. Name the helping verbs 
in each of the other sentences. 

The helping verbs are generally scattered through 
the sentences and must be gathered together in the 
analysis. 

Are you diagramming all the numbered sentences neatly and correctly ? 
Can you analyze each and every sentence as rapidly as you can read after 
you have diagrammed it ? 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 13 



HELPING VERBS— Continued. 

"0, could I fly, I'd fly with thee ! 

We'd make, on joyful wing, 
Our annual visit round the globe, 

Companions of the spring." 

1. Has that young owl been catching mice ? 

2. Will that old hawk catch our pigeons ? 

3. Could a little bird have built that nest 1 

4. Can that fox have seen your ducks 1 

5. Must those black squirrels climb that tree ? 

6. Can Flattery soothe death's dull, cold ear 1 



Flattery can soothe ear 




''Can flattery soothe death's dull, cold ear" is a 
sentence; interrogative. 'Flattery' is the subject, 
'can soothe' is the predicate; 'ear' is the object. 
'Ear' is modified by 'death's' a possessive, and by 
'dull' and 'cold' two adjectives. 

How many words does it take to make one complete 
verb in each of the sentences above ? What is the 
use of a possessive? An adjective ? A verb? Have 
you analyzed all the numbered sentences from the 
first page ? Can you analyze them orally as fast as 
you can read ? 

Write six sentences using two helping verbs in each 
predicate. Use pronouns for subjects. 

Never ask: What is an adjective, what is a pronoun, what is a phrase or 
any other similar question unless the adjective, the pronoun or the phrase is 
at that time in a diagrammed sentence on blackboard where you can point 
to it while explaining. 



14 STEPPING STONES IN 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



The splendor falls on castle walls, 
And snowy summits old in story; 

The long light shakes across the lakes, 
And the wild cataract leaps in glory. 



1. 


George and I saw the fox. 


6. 


It was I. 


2, 


She and John saw the fox. 


7. 


It was she, 


3. 


They saw the fox. 


8. 


It was they 


4. 


He caught that fox. 


9. 


It was he. 


5. 


He could have cought it. 


10. 


It was we. 



' 'Henry and I might have trapped that ferocious 
wolf" is a sentence. 'Henry' and 'I' are the sub- 
jects; 'might have trapped' is the predicate ; 'wolf 
is the object. 'Wolf is modified by 'that' and 'fero- 
cious' two adjectives. 



I Henry and I might have trapped wolf 



that ferocious 



'Trapped' is the principal verb in this sentence. 
'Might' and 'have' are helping verbs. 

Can you put a noun in place of each of the pronouns 
in the sentences above ? "What is a noun ? A pro- 
noun ? A verb ? 

A conjunction is a word that connects words and 
sentences. The word, and, is the only conjunction 
here used. 

Write six sentences using in each two objects, a 
noun and a pronoun, connected by a conjunction. 
Let the noun be modified by an adjective. 

Reduce everything to an object lesson. Never ask. what is an adverb, a 
preposition, an adjective until vou have the adverb, the preoosition or adjec- 
tive in a sentence diagrammed on the blackboard where you can point to it. 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 

AUXILIARIES AND COX JUNCTIONS. 

hark ! hear ! how thin and clear. 

And thinner, clearer, farther going ! 
O sweet and far, from cliff and scar, 

The horns of Elfland faintly blowing. 



15 



( 


Horns 


are blowing 




of 


( the ) 


faintly 




Elfland ) 





1. Could we have caught that fox ? 

2. Can she have seen that fox ? 

3. Should they have seen the fox ? 

4. Who should have shot that fox ? 

5. Did he and John not wound it 1 



You and he 



did catch 



bear 




"Did you and he not catch this black bear" is a 
sentence. 'You' and 'he' are the subjects; 'did 
catch' is the predicate; 'bear' is the object. 'Did 
catch' is modified by 'not' an adverb, 'bear' is 
modified by 'this' and 'black' two adjectives. 

Write six sentences using* two helping verbs in 
each predicate. Give each sentence two subjects 
connected by a conjunction. 

The diagrams are designed a- a U MOD in drawing and should receive quite 
as much care and attention as any drawing lesson. The printer's curves at 
the ends of the lines should be made Straight lines on slates and paper. The 
printer's badly connected joints should be made perfect with the pencil. 



16 



STEPING STONES IN 



ADVERBS OF MANNER. 

Softly, peacefully, lay her to rest, 

Place the turf lightly on her -young breast, 

Gently, solemnly, bend o'er the bed 
Where ye have pillowed thus early her head. 

An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an ad- 
jective, or another adverb. The adverbs here modify 
verbs only. 

1. George and Henry walk slowly. 

2. William walks rapidly. 

3. He acts carelessly. 

4. They act carefully. 

5. One subject makes a singular subject. 

6. Two subjects make a plural subject. 



( 


You 


lay 


her 






softly 


to 


Peacefully | 












rest j 





" Softly, peacefully, lay her to rest" is a sentence. 
'You' understood, is the subject; 'lay' is the predi- 
cate; 'her' is the object. The verb, 'lay' is modified 
by 'softly' and 'peacefully' two adverbs, and by. the 
phrase, 'to rest,' a preposition and its object. 

A singular noun or pronoun means but one person 
or thing. A plural noun is the name of more than 
one thing. Name the singular nouns in the sentences 
above. Name the plural nouns and pronouns. 

Plural nouns generally end in s. How do plural 
verbs generally end ? 

Have you noticed that the three words in the first line of the diagram 
make the statement— tell the fact ? Read that one line in every diagram in 
the book. It contains the subject, predicate, object. 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 17 

ADVERBS— Continued. 

We buried him darkly, at dead of night, 
The sods with our bayonets turning, 

By the struggling moonbeam's misty light, 
And the lantern dimly burning. 

1. This boy works quietly and studiously. 

2. Some boys work rapidly and carelessly. 

3. This girl diagrams every sentence carefully. 

4. Many other girls diagram sentences neatly. 

5. You should bend gently and solemnly over her bed. 



( 


We 


buried 


him 


> 






at 


I darkly J 








dead ) 





" We buried him darkly at dead of night " is a 
sentence. 'We' is the subject; 'buried' is the 
predicate; 'him' is the object. 'Buried' is modi- 
fied by 'darkly' an adverb and by the phrase, 'at 
dead/ 'Dead' is modified by 'of night.' 

Adverbs modify what three parts of speech ? Ad- 
verbs of manner generally end in what syllable ? A 
phrase modifies what part of speech ? Name all the 
parts of speech. 

"From whom can you have taken it" is a sentence. 
'You' is the subject; 'can have taken' is the predi- 
cate; 'it' is the object. 'Can have taken' is modified 
by the phrase, 'from whom,' a proposition and its 
object. 

Write six sentences and in each one let the predi- 
cate be modified by one or more adverbs. 

Every sentence should be diagrammed on the blackboard at the beginning 
of each recitation. This will enable the pupils to correct the mistakes in 
analysis on their slates. 



18 STEPPING STONES IN 

PREPOSITIONS— PHRASES. 

Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 
The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear 

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 

The preposition is that part of speech which com- 
bines with the noun or pronoun to form a phrase. 

1. The caves of ocean bear many a gem. 

2. Tennyson lived on the Isle of Wight. 

3. The whale is hunted in the Atlantic Ocean. 

4. That mountain sfands on a throne of rocks. 

5. The troops of sheridan rallied at Winchester. 

"Many a flower wastes its sweetness on the desert 
air" is a sentence. 'Flower' is the subject; 'wastes' 
is the predicate; 'sweetness' is the object. 'Flower' 
is modified by 'many a' an adjective; 'wastes' is 
modified by the phrase 'on air.' 'On' is the preposition 
and 'air' is its object. 'Air' is modified by 'the' and 
'desert' two adjectives. 



Flower 


wastes 


sweetness 


many a 




on 


its 1 




air j 






the 




desert 



Have you learned how to ask those questions which 
show instantly the use of every word and every 
phrase in a sentence ? If not, your teacher will gen- 
erously spend the time of a recitation, at this place, 
in training you. They are in the appendix. 

Write six sentences, each having at least one ad- 
verb and one phrase composed of a preposition and 
its object. 

Can you diagram five sentences in seven minutes and do it neatly ? If not. 
review the works on the six preceding pages. 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 



19 



PHRASES— Continued. 

Few and short were the prayers we said, 
And we spoke not a word of sorrow: 

And we steadfastly gazed on the face of the dead. 
And we bitterly thought of the morrow. 



( 


we 


gazed 






on 


| steadfastly | 




face ) 



"We steadfastly gazed on the face of the dead " is 
a sentence. 'We' is the subject; 'gazed' is the 
predicate. 'Gazed' is modified by 'steadfastly' an 
adverb and by the phrase, 'on face,' 'on' being 
the preposition and 'face' its object. 

What is a preposition ? A phrase ? Do phrases 
modify nouns as well as verbs? Write three sen- 
tences in which the nouns and verbs are modified by 
phrases. 

1. From whom did you get it ! 

2. To whom did you give it ? 

3. With whom has he divided it ? 

4. By whom can he secure it I 

5. Between whom can they have shared it I 



II.- 



havr 



given 



to 



whom 



"Who can he have given it to" is a sentence, 
interrogative. ' He' is the subject; 'can have given' 
is the predicate; 'it' is the object. 'Can have 
given' is modified by the phrase, 'to who,' a 
proposition and its object. 'Who' is in the objective 
case and should have the objective form, whom. 

Tf any of the pupils fail to understand the meaning of the term, phrase, 
copula adverb, preposition, or anything else in the work after having heard 
the definition and explanation times, show it to the whole class in 

a diagrammed sentence on the blackboard and explain it once more. 



20 STEPPING STONES IN 

COMPOSITION. 

We give below a list of the prepositions in common 
use. As a class exercise have the pupils make short, 
simple sentences in which each of these shall be used 
as part of a phrase modifier. 

As preparation have each pupil write six sentences 
using six of these prepositions in phrase modifiers. 



Aboard, 


athwart, 


ere, 


till, 


about, 


before, 


for, 


to, 


above, 


behind, 


from, 


toward, 


across, 


below, 


in, 


towards, 


after, 


beneath, 


into, 


under, 


against, 


beside, 


of, 


underneath, 


along 1 , 


besides, 


on, 


until, 


amid, 


between, 


over, 


unto, 


amidst, 


betwixt, 


past, 


up, 


among, 


beyond, 


round, 


upon, 


amongst, 


but, 


since, 


with, 


around, 


by, 


through, 


within, 



The following are technical terms used in grammar. 
They should be treated as a lesson in spelling and 
reading until every member of the class becomes per- 
fectly familiar with them. 

1. Sentence, simple, compound, complex, decla- 
rative, interrogative, imperative. 

2. Noun, pro-noun, verb, singular, plural, tran- 
sitive, copulative, copula, adverb, time, place, 
case. 

3. Adjective, descriptive, comparison, positive, 
comparative, superlative, preposition, object, phrase. 

4. Subject, predicate, object, phrase modifier, 
clause modifier, punctuation, quotation. 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 



21 



PREPOSITIONS AND NOUNS. 

"0, could I fly, I'd fly with thee ! 

We'd make, on joyful wing, 
Our annual visit round the globe, 

Companions of the spring." 

In poetry and in many old books we find the old 
style of pronouns used. They are, thou, thy, thine, 
thee, ye, etc. 



We 



would make 



visit 



with 



wing 



our 



annual 



oer 



joyful 



globe 



:) 



the 



1. Who did you get it from? 

2. Who did you give it to J ? 

3. Who did he divide it with? 

"Who did he divide it with" is a sentence, Inter- 
rogative. 'He' is the subject; 'did divide' is the 
predicate; 'it' is the object. 'Did divide' is modi- 
fied by the phrase, 'with who,' a preposition and its 
object. 

Rule: The object of a preposition is in the ob- 
jective case and should have the objective form. 
Therefore the sentence should be: With whom did he 
divide it? 



He 



I 



did divide 



it 



with I whom 



What two changes were made in correcting this 
sentence? Name all the case forms of the pronoun, 
who* Correct and analyze the other sentences and 
write six sentences, all interrogative, using either who, 
whose or whom in each. 



22 STEPPING STONES IN 

THE COPULATIVE VERB— To Be, 



BE AM WAS 


IS ARE WERE BEEN. 


1. It is I. 


7. It is he. 


2. It was I. 


8. It was who? 


3. It was we. 


9. It was they. 


4. We were bovs. 


10. They were men. 


5. It was he and she. 


11. It was he and I. 


6. He has been a soldier. 12. They have been soldiers. 


The verb, to be, does not express action. It is 


rver followed by an 


object like other verbs. Its 



different forms are, am, was, is, are, were, has been, 
have been, had been. 

1. The Greeks were the cultured people of antiquity. 

2. He is the newly elected president of France. 

3. Augustus might have been a famous monarch. 

4. The prophets had been the leaders of the people. 



( 


Chancellor 


is T 




officer 




of 


the 


| the | 


of 


highest | 




England ) 


kingdom 



' 'The chancellor of England is the highest judicial 
officer of the kingdom" is a sentence. 'Chancellor' 
is the subject; 'is' is the copula; 'officer' is the 
predicate. 

We find in this sentence a new meaning attached 
to the term, predicate. The action-word or verb has 
been called the predicate from the beginning of the 
work. 



Friend 



should have been 



Counselor 



"His friend should have been his counselor" is a 
sentence. 'Friend' is the subject; 'should have 
been' is the copula; 'counselor' is the predicate. 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 23 

COPULATIVE YERBS-Continued. 

Oh! a wonderful stream is the river Time, 
As it runs through the realm of tears, 
With a faultless rhythm and a musical rhyme 

And a broader sweep and a surge sublime, 
As it blends with the ocean of years. 



I River 



is T stream 



I the I I a I wonderful 

"A wonderful stream is the river Time" is a sen- 
tence. 'River' is the subject; 4s' is the copula; 
'stream' is the predicate. 

The noun following the copulative verb is called the 
predicate. The noun following other verbs is called 

the object. 

1. Who is he that blows the horn? 

2. What was it that struck him? 
3 Who is it that tore my book? 

4. Who are they that carried the banner? 

5. Which is the book that you selected ? 

is t he | 



Who 



"Who is he" is a sentence. 'Who' is the sub- 
ject; 'is' is the copula; 'he' is the predicate. 

"That blows the horn" is a sentence. 'That' is 
the subject; 'blows' is the predicate; 'horn' is 
the object. 

Is the predicate of a sentence a noun, a pronoun Or 
a verb? Name all the different forms of the copula- 
tive verb, to be. A pronoun following the copulative 
verb is in what case? 

Write seven sentences each having a different form 
of copulative verb. Let each be followed by the 
nominative form of some pronoun. 



24 STEPPING STONES IN 

COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

1. It was he that took your book. 

2. It is I that saw you. 

3. It was she that wanted us. 

4. It must have been he that built that house. 



( 


It 




must have been j 


he 




, 


( 














that devised 


plan 








the 



"It must have been him that devised the plan" is a 
sentence, complex. 'It must have been him' is the 
first simple sentence of which 'it* is the subject; 
'must have been' is the copula; 'him' is the pred- 
icate. 

The analysis shows that 'him' is the predicate 
and the rule says that it should have the nominative 
form, he. 

Rule : A pronoun used as the predicate of a 
sentence is in the nominative case and should have 
the nominative form. 

The predicate, 'he' in the first simple sentence is 
modified by the sentence, 'that devised the plan' of 
which, 'that' is the subject; 'devised' is the 
predicate; 'plan' is the object. 

A complex sentence is composed of two or more 
simple sentences. A word in the principal sentences 
is modified by another sentence. 

Write six complex sentences. Let the predicate in 
each first or principal sentence be a pronoun and let 
it be modified by a clause — another sentence. 



c 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 25 

COMPLEX SENTENCES— Continued. 

5. There are fragments of songs that nobody sings, 
There are parts of an infant's prayer, 
There's a lute unswept and a harp without strings, 
There are broken vows and pieces of rings, 
And the garments our dead used to wear. 

1. These are the troops that we met on the bridge. 

2. Those are the cadets that saluted them. 

3. They are heroes whom we honor. 

4. It was Napoleon that commanded at Waterloo. 

5. It was the allies that won the victory. 



There 




are 


t fragments 1 










of 






songs 








( 


nobody 


1 


sings that 



"There are fragments of songs that nobody sings" 
is sentence, complex. 'There' is the subject of the 
first or principal sentence; 'are' is the copula; 
'fragments' is the predicate and is modified by the 
phrase, 'of songs.' 'Nobody' is the subject of the 
second or modifying sentence; 'sings' is the pre- 
dicate; 'that' is the object. 

In the analysis of this sentence, is the term, predi- 
cate, applied to a verb, noun or pronoun? Have you 
memorized all the case forms of all the pronouns? 
Have you observed that many adjectives, and such 
words as fhere and it are sometimes used as the sub- 
jects of sentences? 

Copulative verbs: Am, was, is, are, were, have 
been, has been, had been. 

Reduce everything to an object lesson Never ask, What is an adverb, a 
preposition, an adjective, until you have the adverb, the preposition or adjec- 
tive in a sentence diagrammed on the blackboard where you can point to it. 



26 



STEPPING STONES IN 



SINGULAR ANI> PLURAL FORMS. 



PLURAL. 

They are. 
They were. 
The blades cut. 
The flowers bloom. 



SINGULAR. 

1. He is. 5. 

2. He was. 6. 

3. The blade cuts. 7. 

4. A flower blooms. 8. 

Examine these sentences and make a rule for the 
formation of plural nouns and another rule for the 
formation of plural verbs. Plural nouns end in what 
letter ? 

It looks well on the wall. 

They look well in the drawing" room. 

He works in the shop on Monday. 

They work in the fields during the summer- 



1. 
2, 

3. 
4. 



Form 


ends 


the 


of 


singular 


in 






verbs 1 


letter i 



1 what J 

"The singular form of verbs end in what letter" 
is a sentence, interrogative, simple. 'Form' is the 
subject; 'end' is the predicate. 

The analysis points out the fact that the verb, 
'end,' has for its subject the singular noun, 'form' 
therefore it should have the singular form, ends. 

Rule : A verb must agree with its subject in 
number. 

Write six sentences using in each a plural subject 
modified by a phrase and four sentences with singular 
subjects, each modified by an adjective and a phrase. 

The instructor should continually ask such questions as these during the 
recitation: What r>art of speech is the word, form? letters? in? singular? 
etc. What part of speech is the subject? the predicate? etc.? If the pupil fails 
to answer promptly the instructor should answer and explain without delay. 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 



THIS, THAT, KIND, SORT. 





SINGULAR. 




PLURAL. 


L 


This boy near me. 


7. 


These boys near me. 


2. 


That boy over there. 


8. 


Those boys over there. 


3. 


This kind of cloth. 


9. 


These kinds of goods. 


4. 


That kind of cloth. 


10. 


Those kinds of goods. 


5. 


This sort of powder. 


11. 


These sorts of powders 


6. 


That sort of powder. 


12. 


Those sorts of powders 



The adjectives, this and that are singular. They 
have the plurals, these and those. 

We use this and these when speaking of things 
near us; that and those when speaking of things 
away from us. 

" Do you not like thoso sort of people " is a sen- 
tence; interrogative; simple. 'You' is the subject; 
'do like' is the predicate; 'sort' is the object. 'Sort 
is modified by the phrase, 'of people' and by 'those : 
an adjective. 



You 


do like 


sort 


/ 


not J 


of 


| that | 


people 


) 



' Tho s e' modifies the singular noun, 'sort,' and it 
should have the singular form, that. 

What point do we find at the end of a question ? 
Name all the forms of the copulative verb. Decline 
the pronouns, who, he, she, it. What parts of speech 
may be used as the predicates of sentences ? 

Write six sentences using in each, either kind or 
sort and have it modified by a phrase. 



What 
subject? 



part of speech is, do like? 
the object? the predicate? 



people? not? sort? that? of? the 



28 STEPPING STONES IN 

EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER. 

1. Each of us will contribute a trifle. 

2. Neither of them will refuse. 

3. Either of the contracts will satisfy us. 

4. Neither of the fleets sails this week. 

5. Every one of the girls reads well. 

"Neither of the boys *eet&- very well" is a sen- 
tence; declarative; simple. 'Neither' is the sub- 
ject; 'read' is the predicate. 'Neither' is modified 
by the phrase, 'of boys,' 'road' is modified by 
'well,' an adverb; 'well' is modified by 'very,' another 
adverb. 



Neither reads 



of 



boys ) jp 



well 



very 



the 



The verb, 'read' has the singular subject, 'neither,' 
it should, therefore, have the singular form, reads. 

The adjectives, this, that, each, every, either, 
neither, etc., are often used as nouns. They are 
singular, and when used as the subjects of sentences 
they should be followed by the singular form of verbs. 

What is an adverb ? Can one adverb modify 
another ? Name all the forms of the copulative verb, 
to be. What case forms of pronouns follow copulative 
verbs ? How many simple sentences in a complex 
sentence ? Can a sentence be used as a modifier of a 
word? 

What part of speech is the subject of a sentence? The predicate? The 
object of a transitive verb? The object of a preposition? Name all the 
parts of speech. What part of speech is neither? read? that? very? well? 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 



29 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives have three forms, or three degrees of 
comparison. The positive is the simple form. 

The comparative form is used when we are com- 
paring two persons or two things. The superlative 
is used when we are comparing three, four or more 
persons or things. 



POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


bright 


brighter 


brightest 


happy 


happier 


happiest 


able 


abler 


ablest 


mellow 


mellower 


mellowest 


genteel 


genteeler 


genteelest 



1. Walter is a bright boy for his age. 

2. Howard is a brighter boy than John. 

3. Charles was the brightest boy in the class. 

"The day before yesterday must have been the 
warmest of the two" is a sentence; declarative; 
simple. 'Day' is the subject; 'must have been' is 
the copula; 'day' understood, is the predicate. The 
subject, 'day,' is modified by 'the' an adjective 
and by the phrase, 'before yesterday.' The predi- 
cate, 'day' is modified by 'the' and 'warmest,' 
two adjectives and by the phrase, 'of days.' 



Day must have been j day ) 


before 


the 


of 


warmer | 




yesterday 1 


days ) 








the two 



'Warmest' is an adjective used in comparing two 
things, it should, therefore, have the comparative 
form, warmer. 

After you have learned to compare the adjectires aboTe, rompare 

good, bad, wise, old, small, long, high, hard, soft. Your instructor will 
aid you in this. 



30 STEPPING STONES IN 

METHOD OF INVESTIGATION. 

The reasoning process which we use while studying, 
drawing conclusions and writing the analysis of a 
sentence in the form of a diagram, either on the 
board during the recitation or on slates while prepar- 
ing the lessons, is identical with that which we use in 
solving mathematical problems and requires quite as 
much care and attention. 

The formulated method of asking questions which 
we here present, when used with care, will aid very 
much in the work. The questions are designed to 
show clearly the use and force of each and every 
word in the sentence. 

How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood, 
When fond recollection presents them to view! 

The orchard, the meadow, the deep tangled wild wood, 
And every loved spot that my infancy knew ! 



Scenes 
1 the J 



are dear 
I how J " 



of 



childhood ) 



to 



heart ) 

I m 7 J 



"How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood" is a 
sentence, exclamatory, simple. Name the three words that 
make the complete statement. Scenes are dear. About what 
is something said, what is the subject? Scenes. What scenes? 
Of childhood. What childhood? My childhood, What is 
said about scenes, what is the predicate? Are dear Are 
dear in what way? Are dear to heart. What heart? My 
heart. 

Can you now analyze the sentences in this First Part rapidly and correctly? 
If so, procure the Second Part. 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 



31 



I shall leave the old house in the autumn, 
To traverse its threshold no more; 

Ah! how shall I sigh for the dear ones 
That meet me each morn at the door; 



i 



shall leave 



house 



I the j j old J 



ID 



autumn J 
I the J 



"I shall leave the old house in the autumn" is a sentence, 
declarative, simple. Read the three words — subject, predicate, 
object — that tell the whole story. I shall leave house. What 
is the subject, the actor? I. What is the action-word, the 
verb, the predicate? Shall leave. |Leave what, what is the 
object? House. What house? The house. What kind of 
house? Old house. Shall leave when? In autumn. 



( You 


do think 


i— i 


met 


whom 


) 






\ 


in 








Paris J 









'* Whom do you think I met in Paris" is a sentence, interro- 
gative, complex. What word expresses the action, what is the 
verb, the predicate? Do think. Who or what is the actor, the 
subject? You. What is the object, you do think what ? The 
clause, 'I met whom in Paris.' Read the three words that 
make the complete statement — subject, predicate, object. / met 
wham. Met where 1 In Paris. 

Ability to ask questions, which show the force and use of words in senten- 
ces, is necessary to Bucceasin the study of language. That ability is acquired 

by careful study of the paragraphs here devoted to that subject. They should, 
at first, be read frequently during recitation — tin ee tiiin s a week. They 
should be kept, for convenient reference, before the pupil while he is pre- 
paring his work— analyzing the sentences on slates or paper. 



32 



STEPPING STONES IN 



"Alas! my noble boy, that thou shouldst die! 

Thou who wert made so beautifully fair! 
That death should settle in thy glorious eye, 

And leave his stillness in thy clustering hair. 
How could he mark thee for the silent tomb — 

My proud boy, Absolum! 



( He 



could 



mark 



thee 



[ how J 



for tomb ) 

[ the J [ silent J ~~ 



"How could he mark thee for the silent tomb" is a sentence, 
exclamatory, simple. Name the three words— subject, predi- 
cate, object — that make the complete statement. He could 
mark thee. What is the subject, the actor 1 ? He. What is the 
action- word, the verb, the predicate"? Could mark. Could 
mark what, what is the object? Thee. Could mark how, when, 
where, for what purpose 1 ? For tomb. Whattomb? The tomb. 
What kind of tomb? Silent tomb. 

one I tells i story 



passengers 





"Every one of the passengers tells the same story" is a 
sentence, declarative, simple. Read the three words that 
make the complete statement — subject, predicate, object. One 
tells story. Who or what is the actor, the person who does 
something, the subject? One. What does ' one ' do, what is 
the action-word, the verb, the predicate? Tells. What is the 
object, tells what? Story. What story? The story, same 
story. What ' one ' tells? Every one, one of passengers. 



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